AP World History: Modern

Hinduism developed over millennia in South Asia, synthesizing Vedic traditions with local practices. Core concepts include dharma (moral duty), karma (action and consequence), samsara (cycle of rebirth), and moksha (liberation from rebirth).

The caste system organized Hindu society into hierarchical groups with distinct occupations and ritual statuses. Varna (broad categories) and jati (specific occupational groups) structured social relations, marriage, and religious practices. The Laws of Manu codified caste obligations and restrictions.

Hindu worship (puja) occurs at home shrines and temples dedicated to various deities. Major traditions include Vaishnavism (devotion to Vishnu and his avatars, including Rama and Krishna), Shaivism (devotion to Shiva), and Shaktism (devotion to the goddess Devi). The Bhagavad Gita, part of the Mahabharata epic, presents teachings on duty, devotion, and knowledge.

Hindu practices include yoga, meditation, pilgrimage to sacred sites like Varanasi and the Ganges River, and elaborate temple rituals. Life-cycle ceremonies (samskaras) mark birth, initiation, marriage, and death. Festivals like Diwali and Holi celebrate religious narratives and seasonal cycles.

Siddhartha Gautama (c. 563–483 BCE), born a prince in present-day Nepal, achieved enlightenment (bodhi) and became the Buddha ("awakened one"). His teachings addressed human suffering and the path to liberation.

The Four Noble Truths state that life involves suffering (dukkha), suffering arises from craving and attachment, suffering can cease, and the Eightfold Path leads to cessation. The Eightfold Path encompasses right view, intention, speech, action, livelihood, effort, mindfulness, and concentration.

Buddhism rejects permanent self (anatta) and emphasizes impermanence (anicca). Nirvana represents liberation from the cycle of rebirth and the extinction of craving and ignorance.

After Buddha's death, Buddhism divided into schools. Theravada Buddhism, predominant in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia, emphasizes monastic discipline and individual enlightenment through meditation and study. Mahayana Buddhism, spreading to East Asia, introduced bodhisattvas (beings who delay enlightenment to assist others) and expanded lay participation. Vajrayana (Tantric) Buddhism, prominent in Tibet and Mongolia, incorporated ritual practices and esoteric teachings.

Buddhist monasteries served as educational centers and preserved texts. Ashoka's patronage spread Buddhism across India and beyond. Missionaries traveled the Silk Road to Central Asia, China, Korea, and Japan. Buddhism adapted to local cultures while transmitting Indian philosophical concepts, art styles, and literary traditions.

Judaism emerged among ancient Israelites in the Levant. The Hebrew Bible (Tanakh) recounts creation, the patriarchs Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, Exodus from Egypt under Moses, and the establishment of the Israelite kingdom under David and Solomon.

The covenant between God and Israel established monotheism and ethical obligations expressed in the Torah's commandments. The Babylonian Exile (586–538 BCE) prompted theological reflection on suffering, sin, and divine purpose. The Second Temple period (516 BCE–70 CE) saw development of synagogue worship, scriptural interpretation, and diverse movements including Pharisees, Sadducees, and Essenes.

After the Roman destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE, Rabbinic Judaism emerged as the dominant form. Rabbis compiled the Mishnah (oral law) and Talmud (commentary), creating a portable religion centered on Torah study, prayer, and ethical conduct rather than Temple sacrifice.

Jewish diaspora communities maintained distinct identities while adapting to surrounding cultures. Sephardic Jews in Spain and the Mediterranean developed distinctive traditions, as did Ashkenazi Jews in Central and Eastern Europe. Kabbalah (mystical tradition) and various philosophical movements enriched Jewish thought.

Christianity originated as a Jewish sect in first-century Palestine. Jesus of Nazareth preached the coming Kingdom of God, gathered disciples, and was crucified under Roman authority. His followers proclaimed his resurrection and identified him as the Messiah (Christ) and Son of God.

The apostle Paul transformed Christianity from a Jewish sect into a universal religion open to Gentiles. Paul's letters articulated theology of salvation through faith in Christ's death and resurrection. Early Christians faced periodic persecution but steadily attracted converts throughout the Roman Empire.

Constantine's legalization of Christianity (313 CE) and Theodosius's establishment of Christianity as the state religion (380 CE) transformed the church's relationship with political power. Ecumenical councils (Nicaea 325, Constantinople 381, Chalcedon 451) defined orthodox doctrine regarding the Trinity and Christ's divine and human natures.

The Great Schism of 1054 formally divided Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic churches over theological, liturgical, and jurisdictional disputes. The pope claimed supreme authority in the West, while Orthodox churches maintained independence under patriarchs.

Christian monasticism, originating in Egypt with figures like Anthony and Pachomius, spread throughout Christendom. Monastic communities preserved learning, copied manuscripts, and provided social services. Benedict of Nursia's Rule (c. 530 CE) shaped Western monasticism.

Islam originated in seventh-century Arabia through the prophet Muhammad (570–632 CE). Muslims believe the Quran represents God's final revelation, transmitted through the angel Gabriel. Muhammad's migration (hijra) from Mecca to Medina in 622 CE marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar.

The Five Pillars of Islam provide the framework for Muslim practice: shahada (profession of faith), salat (five daily prayers), zakat (charitable giving), sawm (fasting during Ramadan), and hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca). The Quran and hadith (sayings and actions of Muhammad) guide Islamic law (sharia) and ethics.

After Muhammad's death, disputes over succession divided the community. Sunni Muslims accepted the caliphate of Abu Bakr and subsequent elected leaders. Shia Muslims believed leadership should pass through Muhammad's family, particularly his cousin and son-in-law Ali and his descendants. This division persists as Islam's major sectarian divide.

The Rashidun, Umayyad, and Abbasid caliphates expanded Islamic territory from Spain to Central Asia. Arabic became the language of learning and administration. Islamic civilization absorbed and transmitted Greek, Persian, and Indian knowledge while making original contributions in mathematics, astronomy, medicine, and philosophy.

Sufism developed as Islam's mystical tradition, emphasizing direct experience of the divine through meditation, chanting, and spiritual discipline. Sufi orders (tariqas) spread Islam to Africa, Central Asia, and Southeast Asia through missionary activity and popular appeal.

Confucius (551–479 BCE) taught during China's Warring States period, seeking to restore social harmony through moral cultivation and proper relationships. The Analects preserve his teachings on ren (benevolence), li (ritual propriety), xiao (filial piety), and junzi (the exemplary person).

Confucianism emphasizes hierarchical relationships: ruler-subject, parent-child, husband-wife, elder-younger, friend-friend. Each relationship involves reciprocal obligations. Rulers should govern benevolently; subjects should obey loyally. Parents nurture children; children honor and care for parents.

The Han Dynasty adopted Confucianism as state ideology, establishing civil service examinations based on Confucian classics. This meritocratic system (in theory) selected officials based on learning rather than birth, though wealthy families dominated examination preparation.

Neo-Confucianism, developed during the Song Dynasty by scholars like Zhu Xi, incorporated Buddhist and Daoist concepts while reasserting Confucian ethics and metaphysics. Neo-Confucianism spread to Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, shaping East Asian governance, education, and family life.

Daoism emerged in China alongside Confucianism, offering a contrasting philosophical orientation. The Daodejing, attributed to Laozi, advocates harmony with the Dao (the Way), the ineffable principle underlying all existence.

Daoist philosophy emphasizes naturalness, simplicity, and wu wei (non-action or effortless action). Rather than imposing human designs on nature, Daoists seek to align with natural patterns. Political implications include minimal government intervention and skepticism toward civilization's artificial complexities.

Religious Daoism developed elaborate practices including alchemy, meditation, divination, and ritual. Daoist priests performed ceremonies for healing, exorcism, and community protection. The quest for immortality inspired internal alchemy (cultivating spiritual energy) and external alchemy (preparing elixirs).

Indigenous religions worldwide share certain patterns while expressing enormous diversity. Animism attributes spiritual power to natural phenomena, animals, plants, and objects. Ancestor veneration honors deceased family members who continue influencing the living. Shamans mediate between human and spirit worlds through trance, ritual, and healing practices.

African traditional religions include belief in a supreme deity, lesser spirits, ancestor veneration, divination, and ritual specialists. Religions adapted to diverse ecological and social settings across the continent.

Native American religions similarly varied across regions but commonly included creator figures, trickster spirits, vision quests, ceremonial cycles tied to seasons and life transitions, and respect for the natural world. Oral traditions preserved sacred narratives and ritual knowledge.

Polynesian religions featured elaborate mythologies, divine chiefs (in some societies), taboo systems (tapu), and ceremonial platforms (marae). Navigation traditions and settlement of the Pacific demonstrated sophisticated knowledge systems.