CSET

Literary Genres

Genre	DescriptionandForms
Fiction	Imaginativenarratives:novels shortstories novellas andflashfiction Subgenresincluderealisticfiction , , , . ,
	historicalfiction sciencefiction fantasy mystery horror andromance eachwithconventionsreaderslearnto , , , , , ,
	recognize Traditionalliteratureincludesfolktales fairytales myths legends andfables(shortstories oftenwith . , , , , ,
	animalcharacters thatteachamoral) , .
Nonfiction	Factualworks:biography autobiography memoir essays journalism andinformationaltexts Literarynonfiction , , , , , .
	usesnarrativetechniqueswhilemaintainingfactualaccuracy .
Poetry	Condensedlanguage imagery rhythm andsounddevicesthatevokeemotionalresponses , , , .
Drama	Literaturewrittenforperformance builtfromdialogue stagedirections acts andscenes Formsincludetragedy , , , , . ,
	comedy tragicomedy melodrama andfarce , , , .

Literary Elements

Plot is the sequence of events in a narrative. Its stages follow a predictable arc.

Climax Falling action Rising action Inciting incident Resolution Exposition

Simplified plot structure (Freytag's pyramid). Tension builds through the rising action to the climax, then eases through the falling action to the resolution.

Stage	Function
Exposition	Introducescharactersandsetting
Incitingincident	Setstheconflictinmotion
Risingaction	Buildstensionthroughcomplications
Climax	Theturningpointofhighesttension
Fallingaction	Showstheconsequencesoftheclimax
Resolution	Concludesthenarrative

Character development creates believable figures through direct characterization (explicit description) and indirect characterization (revealed through actions, speech, thoughts, and others' reactions).

Changes During The Story

Stays The Same

Round, dynamic

Round, static

Complex

Multidimensional and transformed by events

Multidimensional but unchanged

Flat, dynamic

Flat, static

Simple

One-dimensional but changes (uncommon)

One-dimensional and unchanging

Setting encompasses the time and place of the action. Setting establishes mood, influences plot, reflects character, and may function symbolically. Historical settings require accurate period details, and imaginary settings must maintain internal consistency. Mood is the emotional atmosphere a reader feels; tone is the author's attitude toward the subject.

Pointofview

PointofView	Pronouns	WhattheReaderKnows
Firstperson	I we ,	Onlythenarrator'sexperience
Secondperson	you	Addressesthereaderdirectly
Thirdpersonlimited	he she they , ,	Onecharacter'sperspective
Thirdpersonomniscient	he she they , ,	Multiplecharacters'thoughts

Theme is the central idea or insight about life that a work conveys. Themes are expressed as complete statements rather than single words, and a single work may develop multiple themes. Common themes explore identity, justice, love, death, power, freedom, and human nature.

Literary Devices

Figurativelanguageandsounddevices(Continued)

Device	Defi nition
Personification	Humanqualitiesgiventononhumanthings
Hyperbole	Deliberateexaggeration
Understatement	Deliberatelyminimizingsignificance
Imagery	Detailsthatappealtosight sound touch smell andtaste , , , ,
Symbolism	Aconcreteobjectthatrepresentsanabstractidea;symbolsmaybeconventional(widelyrecognized)or
	contextual(meaningfulwithinonework)
Allegory	Symbolismextendedthroughoutanentirenarrative
Foreshadowing	Hintsabouteventsthatwillhappenlater
Alliteration	Repetitionofinitialconsonantsounds
Assonance	Repetitionofvowelsounds
Consonance	Repetitionofconsonantsoundswithinwords
Onomatopoeia	Wordsthatimitatesounds
Rhyme	Matchingendsoundsofwords

Parts of Speech

PartofSpeech	Function
Noun	Namesaperson place thing oridea , , ,
Pronoun	Takestheplaceofanoun
Verb	Expressesactionorastateofbeing
Adjective	Modifiesanounorpronoun
Adverb	Modifiesaverb adjective orotheradverb(Sheranquickly) , ,
Preposition	Showsarelationshipbetweenwords(in on under after) , , ,
Conjunction Interjection	Connectswords phrases orclauses , , Expressesemotion

Sentence Structure

Type	Structure	Example
Simple	Oneindependentclause	Ilikepizza .
Compound	Twoindependentclausesjoinedbya	Sheran andhewalked , .
	coordinatingconjunction
Complex	Oneindependentclauseandatleastone	Becauseitwasraining westayedinside , .
	dependentclause
Compound -complex	Twoormoreindependentclausesandatleast	Whenthebellrang thestudentsleft andtheteacher , ,
	onedependentclause	gradedpapers .

A dependent clause standing alone, such as Because it was late., is a sentence fragment: it does not express a complete thought. Two independent clauses joined with no punctuation or conjunction form a run-on.

Agreement and Verb Tense

Subject-verb agreement

Singular subjects take singular verbs and plural subjects take plural verbs. Watch for intervening phrases, indefinite pronouns (Each of the children plays), compound subjects (The teacher and the students are), and inverted sentences.

Pronoun-antecedent agreement

Pronouns must match their antecedents in number, gender, and person. Unclear antecedents create ambiguity and should be revised.

Verb tense

Present tense shows current or habitual action; past tense, completed action; future tense, action yet to occur. Perfect tenses show action completed relative to another time, and progressive tenses show ongoing action.

Mechanics and Usage

Capitalization rules require capitals for proper nouns (names of specific people, places, organizations, and titles), sentence beginnings, and titles.

Mark	Use
Period	Endsdeclarativeandimperativesentences
Questionmark	Endsinterrogativesentences
Exclamationpoint	Showsemphasisorstrongemotion
Comma	Separatesitemsinaseries setsoffintroductoryelements andjoinsindependentclauseswitha , ,
Semicolon Colon	coordinatingconjunction Joinsindependentclauseswithoutaconjunction Introducesalistoranexplanation

Punctuationataglance(Continued)

Mark	Use
Apostrophe	Showspossessionandformscontractions
Quotationmarks	Enclosedirectspeechandtitlesofshortworks

Common usage errors include confused words (affect/effect, their/there/they're, its/it's), misplaced and dangling modifiers, faulty parallelism, and sentence fragments or run-ons. Homophones are words that sound alike but differ in meaning and spelling (to, two, too).

Language Development

First-language acquisition follows predictable stages.

Milestonesoffirst-Languageacquisition

ApproximateAge	Milestone
About6months	Babblingbegins
About12months	Singlewordsemerge
About18months	Two-word combinations appear
About2years	Telegraphicspeechdevelops
Byabout5years	Complexsentencesemerge

Second-language acquisition differs from first-language learning. Factors that affect it include age, motivation, aptitude, exposure, and the influence of the first language.

Stagesofsecond-Languageacquisition

➜

➜

➜

➜

Silent period

One- and two-word

Simple sentences

Near-native proficiency

responses

More complex speech

Academic language differs from conversational language in vocabulary, syntax, and discourse patterns. It takes longer to develop and requires explicit instruction, and content-area reading demands specialized vocabulary and text structures.