GACE Behavioral Science (6–12) (736)

Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge resulting from experience. It is adaptive, allowing organisms to adjust to changing environments.

Ivan Pavlov discovered classical conditioning while studying digestion in dogs. Classical conditioning involves learning to associate a neutral stimulus with a stimulus that naturally produces a response.

Key terms include:

In Pavlov's experiments, food (US) naturally produced salivation (UR). After repeated pairing with a tone (neutral stimulus), the tone alone (CS) produced salivation (CR).

Acquisition occurs as the CS-US association develops through repeated pairings. Timing matters: the CS should precede the US by a short interval for optimal conditioning.

Extinction occurs when the CS is repeatedly presented without the US, causing the CR to diminish.

Spontaneous recovery is the reappearance of an extinguished CR after a rest period.

Generalization occurs when stimuli similar to the CS also elicit the CR.

Discrimination occurs when the organism learns to respond only to the specific CS and not to similar stimuli.

Higher-order conditioning occurs when a new neutral stimulus is paired with an established CS, allowing the new stimulus to also elicit the CR.

John Watson demonstrated that emotional responses could be classically conditioned in his controversial Little Albert experiment, where a child was conditioned to fear a white rat.

Classical conditioning explains the acquisition of many fears and phobias. It also underlies conditioned taste aversions, where illness following consumption of a food produces lasting aversion to that food.

Systematic desensitization uses classical conditioning principles to treat phobias by pairing feared stimuli with relaxation.

Operant conditioning, studied extensively by B.F. Skinner, involves learning through consequences. Behavior is strengthened or weakened based on what follows it.

Edward Thorndike's Law of Effect states that responses followed by satisfying consequences become more likely, while responses followed by unpleasant consequences become less likely.

Reinforcement increases the probability of a behavior.

Positive reinforcement adds a pleasant stimulus following behavior (giving a treat for good behavior).

Negative reinforcement removes an unpleasant stimulus following behavior (taking aspirin removes headache, increasing likelihood of taking aspirin in the future).

Punishment decreases the probability of a behavior.

Positive punishment adds an unpleasant stimulus following behavior (receiving a speeding ticket).

Negative punishment removes a pleasant stimulus following behavior (losing privileges for misbehavior).

Continuous reinforcement provides reinforcement after every correct response. It produces rapid acquisition but also rapid extinction when reinforcement stops.

Partial (intermittent) reinforcement provides reinforcement only some of the time. It produces slower acquisition but greater resistance to extinction.

Fixed-ratio schedules reinforce after a set number of responses (pay per piece produced).

Variable-ratio schedules reinforce after an unpredictable number of responses (slot machines). These produce high, steady response rates and are highly resistant to extinction.

Fixed-interval schedules reinforce the first response after a set time period (weekly paycheck). These produce scalloped response patterns with increased responding as reinforcement time approaches.

Variable-interval schedules reinforce the first response after varying time intervals (checking email). These produce steady, moderate response rates.

Shaping involves reinforcing successive approximations to a target behavior. It is used to teach complex behaviors not likely to occur spontaneously.

Chaining links simple behaviors into more complex sequences. In backward chaining, the final step is taught first; in forward chaining, the first step is taught first.

Discriminative stimuli signal when reinforcement is available, controlling when behavior occurs.

Generalization occurs when responses reinforced in one situation occur in similar situations.

Extinction occurs when reinforcement is discontinued, causing behavior to decrease.

Albert Bandura's social learning theory emphasizes learning through observation of others (models). His Bobo doll experiments demonstrated that children imitate aggressive behavior observed in adults.

Observational learning requires:

Attention to the model's behavior Retention of the observed behavior in memory Reproduction—the ability to perform the behavior Motivation to imitate, influenced by observed consequences (vicarious reinforcement or punishment)

Mirror neurons, discovered in primates, fire both when performing an action and when observing others perform it, potentially providing a neural basis for observational learning.

Memory involves three fundamental processes:

Encoding transforms sensory input into a form that can be stored. Deeper, more meaningful processing (elaborative encoding) produces better retention than shallow processing.

Storage maintains encoded information over time.

Retrieval accesses stored information when needed.

The Atkinson-Shiffrin model proposes three memory stores:

Sensory memory briefly holds incoming sensory information. Iconic memory stores visual information for about 0.5 seconds. Echoic memory stores auditory information for 3-4 seconds.

Short-term memory (STM) holds limited information (approximately 7±2 items) for about 20-30 seconds without rehearsal. Maintenance rehearsal keeps information in STM; elaborative rehearsal transfers it to long-term memory.

Working memory (Baddeley's model) expands the concept of STM, proposing a phonological loop (verbal information), visuospatial sketchpad (visual and spatial information), episodic buffer (integrating information), and central executive (attention and coordination).

Long-term memory (LTM) has potentially unlimited capacity and duration.

Explicit (declarative) memory involves conscious recollection.

Episodic memory stores personal experiences and events, including contextual details (time, place, emotions).

Semantic memory stores general knowledge and facts independent of personal experience.

Implicit (nondeclarative) memory operates without conscious awareness.

Procedural memory stores motor skills and habits (riding a bicycle).

Priming involves facilitated processing of stimuli due to prior exposure.

Classical conditioning effects represent another form of implicit memory.

Chunking groups individual items into larger meaningful units, expanding effective STM capacity.

Mnemonics are memory aids using organization and imagery. Method of loci involves associating items with locations along a familiar route. Acronyms and acrostics organize information using first letters.

Recall requires generating information from memory with minimal cues (essay questions).

Recognition requires identifying previously learned information (multiple-choice questions). Recognition is generally easier than recall.

Retrieval cues are stimuli that help access stored memories. The encoding specificity principle states that retrieval is best when cues match encoding conditions.

Context-dependent memory: recall is better when the retrieval environment matches the encoding environment.

State-dependent memory: recall is better when internal state (mood, physiological state) matches between encoding and retrieval.

Encoding failure occurs when information never enters long-term memory.

Decay theory proposes that memory traces fade over time without use.

Interference theory proposes that other memories disrupt retrieval.

Memories are reconstructive rather than reproductive. We fill in gaps using schemas (organized knowledge structures), sometimes creating errors.

Misinformation effect: exposure to misleading information after an event can distort memory of the event.

Source monitoring errors occur when we misattribute the origin of a memory.

Flashbulb memories are vivid, detailed memories of emotionally significant events. Despite subjective confidence, they are not necessarily more accurate than ordinary memories.

The hippocampus is critical for forming new declarative memories. Damage causes anterograde amnesia (inability to form new memories) and some retrograde amnesia.

The amygdala processes emotional aspects of memories, enhancing memory for emotionally arousing events.

The cerebellum and basal ganglia are important for procedural memories.

Long-term potentiation (LTP) involves strengthened synaptic connections through repeated stimulation, considered a neural basis for learning and memory.

Memory consolidation transfers memories from temporary to permanent storage, occurring during sleep.

Cognition encompasses mental processes including thinking, reasoning, problem-solving, decision-making, and language.

Mental representations include:

Algorithms are step-by-step procedures guaranteed to produce a solution if followed correctly. They are systematic but often time-consuming.

Heuristics are mental shortcuts that usually yield solutions quickly but can lead to errors.

Means-end analysis reduces the difference between current state and goal state through subgoals.

Working backward starts from the goal and determines steps needed to reach it.

Analogical reasoning applies solutions from similar problems.

Fixation is an inability to perceive a problem from a new perspective.

Mental set is a tendency to use solutions that worked in the past even when they are no longer optimal.

Functional fixedness is difficulty seeing objects as having uses beyond their typical function.

Confirmation bias is a tendency to seek information confirming existing beliefs while ignoring contradictory evidence.

Compensatory strategies involve weighing all attributes systematically.

Non-compensatory strategies use shortcuts to simplify decisions.

Heuristics in decision making include:

Deductive reasoning draws specific conclusions from general premises. If premises are true and logic is valid, conclusions are necessarily true.

Inductive reasoning draws general conclusions from specific observations. Conclusions are probable but not certain.

Common reasoning errors include:

Language is a system of symbols and rules for combining them to communicate meaning.

Language structure includes:

Infants are born with capacity to distinguish all phonemes but narrow to native language sounds by 10-12 months.

Babbling (6-9 months) includes sounds from all languages, then narrows.

First words appear around 12 months.

Two-word combinations emerge around 18-24 months (telegraphic speech).

Vocabulary and grammar expand rapidly during preschool years.

Critical period hypothesis: language acquisition is easiest before puberty. Evidence includes difficulty in second language acquisition after this period and cases of language deprivation.

Behaviorist theory (Skinner): language is learned through reinforcement and imitation. Criticized for not explaining rapid acquisition and novel utterances.

Nativist theory (Chomsky): humans possess an innate language acquisition device (LAD) containing universal grammar. Evidence includes universal language milestones and children's creation of grammatical rules not explicitly taught.

Interactionist theory emphasizes both biological readiness and social interaction (child-directed speech, scaffolding).

Linguistic relativity hypothesis (Sapir-Whorf): language influences thought. Strong version (linguistic determinism): language determines thought. Weak version: language influences thought without completely determining it.

Evidence suggests language does influence certain cognitive processes, particularly memory and perception of categories.

Intelligence definitions vary but generally include abilities to learn, reason, solve problems, and adapt to new situations.

Spearman's g factor: general intelligence underlying all mental abilities.

Thurstone's primary mental abilities: seven distinct abilities rather than a single g.

Cattell's fluid and crystallized intelligence:

Binet and Simon developed the first intelligence test to identify children needing academic support.

Mental age indicates the level of performance typical for a particular chronological age.

IQ (Intelligence Quotient) originally calculated as (mental age / chronological age) × 100.

Modern tests use deviation IQ, comparing performance to age-matched norms. Mean is 100; standard deviation is 15.

Wechsler scales (WAIS, WISC, WPPSI) provide verbal comprehension, perceptual reasoning, working memory, and processing speed scores.

Standardization involves administering tests to representative samples to establish norms.

Reliability is consistency of measurement. Test-retest reliability involves consistency across time. Split-half reliability involves consistency across test items.

Validity is whether a test measures what it claims to measure.

Content validity: test items sample the relevant domain. Criterion validity: test scores predict relevant outcomes. Construct validity: test measures the theoretical construct.

Heritability estimates for IQ range from 0.50-0.80 in adulthood, indicating substantial genetic influence. Heritability increases with age.

Environmental factors include nutrition, education, family environment, and socioeconomic status. Flynn effect: IQ scores have risen substantially over generations, indicating environmental influence.

Gene-environment interactions: genetic potential is expressed differently depending on environment.

Stereotype threat: awareness of negative stereotypes about one's group can impair test performance.