GACE History (6–12) (721)

The French and Indian War (1754–1763), the North American theater of the Seven Years' War, ended French power in North America but created conditions for colonial rebellion. British victory required enormous expenditures, prompting Parliament to seek colonial contributions to imperial defense costs.

The Proclamation of 1763 prohibited colonial settlement west of the Appalachian Mountains, frustrating land speculators and settlers. The Sugar Act (1764) and Stamp Act (1765) imposed new taxes on the colonies. Colonial resistance articulated the principle of "no taxation without representation," arguing that Parliament lacked authority to tax colonists who elected no members.

The Stamp Act Congress brought together representatives from nine colonies, demonstrating inter-colonial cooperation. Boycotts of British goods, mob actions against tax collectors, and the formation of the Sons of Liberty pressured Parliament to repeal the Stamp Act. However, the Declaratory Act asserted Parliament's authority to legislate for the colonies "in all cases whatsoever."

The Townshend Acts (1767) imposed duties on imported glass, lead, paint, paper, and tea, and colonists answered with new boycotts. The Boston Massacre (1770), in which British soldiers killed five colonists, became a propaganda tool for revolutionary activists. The Boston Tea Party (1773), a protest against the Tea Act's provisions favoring the British East India Company, provoked Parliament's punitive response.

The Intolerable Acts (Coercive Acts) of 1774 closed Boston Harbor, restricted Massachusetts self-government, and expanded quartering of troops. These measures united the colonies in opposition. The First Continental Congress met in Philadelphia, organized boycotts, and prepared for potential conflict.

Fighting began at Lexington and Concord in April 1775 when British troops attempted to seize colonial weapons stores. The Second Continental Congress assumed governmental functions, creating the Continental Army under George Washington's command.

Thomas Paine's Common Sense (January 1776) made the case for independence in accessible language, attacking monarchy and arguing that it was absurd for an island to govern a continent. The Declaration of Independence, drafted primarily by Thomas Jefferson and adopted on July 4, 1776, drew on John Locke's natural rights philosophy: "all men are created equal" with "unalienable Rights" to "Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness." Government derived its legitimacy from the consent of the governed, and the people could alter or abolish a government that destroyed those rights. Most of the document lists grievances against King George III.

The Revolutionary War tested American endurance. British forces held advantages in trained troops, naval power, and resources. American advantages included defensive position, knowledge of terrain, French alliance (1778), and determination. Key engagements included the American victory at Saratoga (1777), which secured French support; the brutal winter at Valley Forge; and the decisive Yorktown campaign (1781), where combined American and French forces compelled British surrender.

The Treaty of Paris (1783) recognized American independence with boundaries extending west to the Mississippi River, north to the Great Lakes and Canada, and south to the border of Florida, which Britain returned to Spain in a separate treaty.

The Articles of Confederation, America's first constitution, created a weak central government reflecting revolutionary-era suspicions of centralized power. Congress lacked authority to tax, regulate commerce, or enforce laws. Each state retained sovereignty, and amendments required unanimous approval.

The Articles government achieved notable successes, including the Land Ordinance of 1785 establishing systematic western land surveys and the Northwest Ordinance of 1787 creating governmental structures for western territories while prohibiting slavery north of the Ohio River.

However, the Articles' weaknesses became apparent. Shays' Rebellion (1786–1787), an uprising of debt-burdened Massachusetts farmers, alarmed elites concerned about property rights and social order. Economic difficulties, interstate trade disputes, and inability to address foreign policy challenges prompted calls for constitutional revision.

The Constitutional Convention met in Philadelphia in 1787, exceeding its mandate to revise the Articles by creating an entirely new framework. Delegates debated representation, resulting in the Great Compromise establishing a bicameral Congress with proportional representation in the House and equal state representation in the Senate. The Three-Fifths Compromise counted enslaved persons as three-fifths of free persons for representation and taxation purposes, embedding slavery within the constitutional structure without using the word.

The Constitution created a federal system dividing power between national and state governments. Separation of powers distributed authority among legislative, executive, and judicial branches with checks and balances preventing any branch's dominance. The electoral college system for presidential selection balanced popular participation with elite mediation.

Ratification debates pitted Federalists supporting the Constitution against Anti-Federalists fearing centralized power and demanding a bill of rights. The Federalist Papers, written by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay, articulated Federalist arguments. Anti-Federalist concerns prompted the first ten amendments, the Bill of Rights, ratified in 1791, protecting individual liberties including speech, religion, press, assembly, and due process.