United States History · 6 min read
Colonial Resistance
Colonial Resistance
Colonists objected to these measures on constitutional grounds, arguing that only their elected assemblies could tax them ("no taxation without representation"). Resistance took multiple forms:
Pamphlets and newspapers spread arguments against British policy
Boycotts of British goods (non-importation agreements)
Organizations like the Sons of Liberty organized protests and intimidated tax collectors
The Stamp Act Congress (1765) united nine colonies in formal protest
Britain repealed the Stamp Act (1766) but passed the Declaratory Act asserting Parliament's authority to legislate for the colonies "in all cases whatsoever."
Escalation to Independence
The Boston Massacre (1770) killed five colonists and became a propaganda tool. Parliament repealed most Townshend duties but retained the tea tax as a symbol of authority. The Tea Act (1773) granted the East India Company a monopoly on colonial tea sales; colonists responded with the Boston Tea Party (December 1773), dumping tea into Boston Harbor.
Britain retaliated with the Coercive Acts (1774), which colonists called the Intolerable Acts:
Closed Boston Harbor until tea was paid for
Restricted Massachusetts self-government
Allowed officials accused of crimes to be tried in England
Strengthened quartering requirements
The Quebec Act (1774) extended Quebec's boundaries and guaranteed Catholic religious freedom, alarming Protestant colonists.
The First Continental Congress (1774) coordinated colonial resistance, organizing boycotts and petitioning the king. Fighting began at Lexington and Concord (April 1775). The Second Continental Congress (1775) organized the Continental Army under George Washington.
Declaration of Independence
Thomas Paine's pamphlet Common Sense (January 1776) argued for complete independence and republican government, influencing public opinion. On July 4, 1776, Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence, primarily written by Thomas Jefferson.
The Declaration drew on Enlightenment philosophy, particularly John Locke's theories of natural rights and social contract. It asserted that "all men are created equal" with "unalienable rights" to "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness." Governments derive their powers from "the consent of the governed"; when governments become destructive of these ends, people have the right to alter or abolish them.
The Revolutionary War
Military Campaigns
The war lasted from 1775 to 1783. Key phases included:
Northern Campaigns (1775–1778)
Southern Campaigns (1778–1781)
British shifted strategy southward, hoping to rally Loyalist support
Charleston fell (1780), the worst American defeat of the war
Guerrilla warfare by Francis Marion and others harassed British forces
Yorktown (1781): Washington and French forces trapped Cornwallis; British surrender effectively ended the war
Treaty of Paris (1783)
Britain recognized American independence. The United States gained territory to the Mississippi River. Americans retained fishing rights off Newfoundland. Congress agreed to recommend that states restore Loyalist property (largely ignored).
Creating a New Government
State Constitutions
States drafted new constitutions reflecting republican principles: written constitutions, separation of powers, bills of rights, elected legislatures. Most expanded voting rights (though still limiting suffrage to property-owning white men) and weakened executive power.
Articles of Confederation
The Articles of Confederation (ratified 1781) created a weak central government reflecting fears of concentrated power. Congress lacked power to tax, regulate commerce, or enforce laws. Each state had one vote regardless of population. Amendments required unanimous consent.
Accomplishments under the Articles included the Land Ordinance of 1785 (surveying western lands) and Northwest Ordinance of 1787) (organizing territories, prohibiting slavery in the Northwest Territory, establishing procedures for statehood).
Weaknesses became apparent: Congress couldn't pay war debts, regulate trade disputes between states, or maintain order. Shays' Rebellion (1786–1787)—a farmers' uprising in Massachusetts against debt collection and foreclosures—alarmed elites and demonstrated the need for stronger government.
Constitutional Convention
Delegates met in Philadelphia (May–September 1787) to revise the Articles but ultimately created an entirely new Constitution. Key compromises included:
Great Compromise
Resolved conflict between large and small states by creating a bicameral legislature: Senate with equal state representation; House of Representatives based on population.
Three-Fifths Compromise
Counted enslaved people as three-fifths of a person for representation and taxation purposes. This increased Southern political power without granting enslaved people any rights.
Commerce and Slave Trade Compromises
Congress could regulate interstate and foreign commerce but couldn't ban the slave trade for 20 years or tax exports.
Ratification Debates
Federalists (Hamilton, Madison, Jay) supported the Constitution, arguing that a stronger government was necessary and that the system of checks and balances would prevent tyranny. The Federalist Papers explained and defended the Constitution.
Anti-Federalists (Patrick Henry, George Mason, Samuel Adams) opposed ratification, fearing centralized power would threaten liberty and state sovereignty. They demanded a bill of rights.
The Constitution was ratified (1788) with the understanding that a bill of rights would be added. The first ten amendments (Bill of Rights) were ratified in 1791, protecting individual liberties including freedom of religion, speech, press, assembly, and petition; the right to bear arms; protections against unreasonable searches and self-incrimination; rights to jury trials; and reservation of powers to states and people.
Part C: The New Republic and Antebellum America (1789–1860)
The Federalist Era
Washington's Presidency (1789–1797)
George Washington established important precedents: the Cabinet system, two-term limit (later formalized by the 22nd Amendment), and peaceful transfer of power. His administration faced challenges including establishing federal authority (Whiskey Rebellion, 1794), managing foreign relations (Neutrality Proclamation, 1793), and navigating emerging political divisions.
Alexander Hamilton's financial program included:
Federal assumption of state war debts
Creation of a national bank (Bank of the United States)
Protective tariffs and excise taxes
Encouragement of manufacturing
Thomas Jefferson and James Madison opposed Hamilton's program as exceeding constitutional authority and favoring commercial interests over farmers. These disputes gave rise to the first party system: Federalists (Hamilton) versus Democratic-Republicans (Jefferson, Madison).
Adams's Presidency (1797–1801)
John Adams faced the Quasi-War with France and domestic tensions. The Alien and Sedition Acts (1798) restricted immigration and criminalized criticism of the government, prompting the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions (Jefferson and Madison), which articulated states' rights doctrines.
The Election of 1800 ("Revolution of 1800") marked the first peaceful transfer of power between opposing parties when Jefferson defeated Adams.
Jeffersonian America
Jefferson's Presidency (1801–1809)
Jefferson reduced federal power, eliminated internal taxes, and cut military spending. The Louisiana Purchase (1803) doubled national territory for $15 million, though it raised constitutional questions about federal power to acquire territory. The Lewis and Clark Expedition (1804–1806) explored the new territory.
Foreign challenges included Barbary pirates and British impressment of American sailors. The Embargo Act (1807) prohibited American trade with foreign nations, attempting to pressure Britain and France through economic coercion. It devastated American commerce and proved deeply unpopular.
War of 1812
Causes included British impressment of sailors, interference with American trade, and alleged British support for Native American resistance. War Hawks in Congress (Henry Clay, John C. Calhoun) pushed for war.
The war was militarily inconclusive. The British burned Washington, D.C. (1814), but American forces repelled attacks on Baltimore (inspiring "The Star-Spangled Banner") and New Orleans. The Treaty of Ghent (1814) restored the status quo antebellum.
The war's consequences included:
Increased American nationalism
Decline of the Federalist Party (Hartford Convention damaged their reputation)
Weakening of Native American resistance in the Northwest and South
Growth of domestic manufacturing (reduced dependence on British goods)
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