NLN PAX

Determining Word Meaning Through Word Parts

Beyond context clues, you can determine word meaning through word structure analysis. Knowing common roots, prefixes, and suffixes lets you decode unfamiliar terms, and it is especially valuable for medical vocabulary.

Prefxi	Meaning	Example
pre-	before	prenatal:beforebirth
post-	after	postoperative:aftersurgery
anti -	against	antibacterial:againstbacteria
hyper-	excessive above ,	hyperactive:excessivelyactive
hypo-	under below ,	hypothermia: below-normal body temperature
sub -	under	subcutaneous:undertheskin
trans-	across	transfusion:transferacross(intoavein)
inter-	between	intercellular:betweencells
intra-	within	intravenous:withinavein
a-, an-	without	asymptomatic:withoutsymptoms

Suffxi	Meaning	Example
-itis	inflammation	arthritis:jointinflammation
-ology	studyof	cardiology:studyoftheheart
-ectomy	surgicalremoval	appendectomy:removaloftheappendix
-osis	abnormalcondition	stenosis:narrowingcondition
-pathy	disease	neuropathy:nervedisease
-gram	record	electrocardiogram:recordoftheheart'selectricalactivity
-scope	instrumentforviewingor	stethoscope:instrumentforlisteningtobodysounds
	examining
-plasty	surgicalrepair	rhinoplasty:surgicalrepairofthenose
-algia	pain	neuralgia:nervepain
-emia	bloodcondition	anemia:deficiencyofredbloodcellsorhemoglobin

Commonroots

Root	Meaning	Root	Meaning
cardi/o	heart	derm/o	skin
pulmon/o hepat/o ren/o neur/o	lung liver kidney nerve	gastr/o oste/o hem/o cephal/o	stomach bone blood head	1

gastr/o + -itis = gastritis → inflammation of the stomach

Break the word into parts, define each part, then combine the meanings. The same method gives hepatitis (liver inflammation) and osteopathy (bone disease).

Evaluating the Author's Purpose

Authors write for specific purposes, and identifying the purpose helps you understand and assess a text appropriately.

Identifying the Author's Tone

Tone reflects the author's attitude toward the subject. It is conveyed through word choice, sentence structure, and overall approach. To identify tone, analyze word connotations (positive, negative, or neutral), consider the author's relationship to the subject, examine punctuation and sentence structure, and note any emotional language or the lack of it.

Commontones

Tone	Description	Tone	Description
Objective	Neutral factual ,	Subjective	Personal opinion-based ,
Formal	Professional academic ,	Informal	Casual conversational ,
Optimistic	Hopeful positive ,	Pessimistic	Negative doubtful ,
Critical	Analytical evaluative ,	Sympathetic	Understanding compassionate ,

Distinguishing Fact from Opinion

Astatementthatcanbeverifiedastrueorfalsethrough					Abelief feeling judgment orpreferencethatcannotbe , , ,
evidence observation orresearch Itisobjective Example: , , . .					proventrueorfalse Example:"Nursingisthemostrewarding .
"Thehumanhearthasfourchambers" .					healthcareprofession"Signalwords:believe think feel seem . , , , ,
					probably best worst should oughtto , , , , .

Recognizing Bias

Bias is a prejudice or inclination that affects objectivity. Biased writing presents information in a slanted manner to favor a particular viewpoint. Signs of bias include one-sided presentation, omission of contrary evidence, loaded language with strong connotations, stereotypes or generalizations, and appeals to emotion rather than logic. Critical readers identify bias to evaluate how reliable information is and to consider multiple perspectives.

Evaluating Arguments

A claim is the main assertion an author makes: the position being argued or defended. Evidence supports claims; strong evidence is relevant, accurate, sufficient, and representative, and includes statistics, research findings, expert testimony, examples, and logical reasoning. Fallacies are errors in reasoning that weaken arguments.

Fallacy	ErrorinReasoning
Adhominem	Attacksthepersonratherthantheargument
Strawman	Misrepresentsanopponent'spositiontomakeiteasiertoattack
Falsedilemma	Presentsonlytwooptionswhenmoreexist
Slipperyslope	Claimsoneeventwillinevitablyleadtoextremeconsequences
Hastygeneralization	Drawsbroadconclusionsfromlimitedevidence
Appealtoauthority	Reliesonaninappropriateorunqualifiedsource
Circularreasoning	Usestheconclusionasapremise
Redherring	Introducesirrelevantinformationtodistractfromtheissue
Bandwagon	Suggestssomethingistruebecausemanypeoplebelieveit
Falsecause	Assumescausationfromcorrelation

Drawing Conclusions

Conclusions are judgments based on evidence and reasoning. Valid conclusions follow logically from the information presented and are supported by the text. To draw one, gather relevant information, identify patterns and relationships, apply logical reasoning, consider alternative interpretations, and make sure the conclusion is proportional to the evidence.

When a question asks which statement would weaken or strengthen an author's claim, first restate the claim in your own words. The correct answer directly contradicts (weakens) or directly supports (strengthens) that claim; answers about related but different topics are distractors.

Additional Reading Concepts