Literacy · 16 min read
Word Structure and Context Clues
Vocabulary questions on the test rarely ask for a memorized definition. Instead, they give a word or phrase inside a sentence or passage and ask what it means as used there. Two tools solve almost every item: breaking the word into meaningful parts, and reading the surrounding words for clues. Strong readers use both at once and then check the chosen meaning by substituting it back into the sentence.
A morpheme is the smallest unit of meaning in a word. A root (or base) carries the core meaning; a prefix attaches to the front and changes the meaning; a suffix attaches to the end and usually changes the part of speech or tense. In unbreakable, the prefix un- means "not," the base break is the action, and the suffix -able turns it into an adjective meaning "able to be." Together: not able to be broken.
-ly in a certain way (usually adverb)
-ous, -ive, -al having the quality of (adjective)
When two answer choices both fit the root, use the suffix to decide: a word ending in -tion names a thing or process, so a choice that describes an action or a quality is the wrong part of speech.
Compound Words and Word Order
A compound word joins two complete words into one meaning: notebook, playground, homework. Compounds may be closed (classroom), hyphenated (self-esteem, well-known before a noun) or open (high school, bus stop). Their meaning is usually, but not always, the sum of the parts; a blackboard need not be black, and a hot dog is not a dog.
Word order also carries meaning in English. Position tells the reader which word is the subject, which is the object and which word a modifier describes. The dog chased the cat and The cat chased the dog use identical words but report opposite events. Likewise, only changes the message depending on where it sits: Only Maria passed the quiz (no one else passed) versus Maria only passed the quiz (she passed but did not excel). When a test item asks what a phrase means, look at the words immediately before and after it to see what it modifies.
Context clues are the hints that surrounding words give about an unfamiliar word. The test often signals the clue type through a connecting word, so learning the signal words speeds up the search.
Definition is, means, refers to, called
An anecdote, which is a brief personal story, opened the speech.
Synonym or or, that is, in other words, also known restatement as
The room was frigid, or extremely cold.
Antonym or contrast but, however, unlike, although, instead
Unlike his verbose sister, Sam answered in three words.
Example such as, for example, including, like
Precipitation, such as rain, sleet and snow, is likely.
Cause and effect because, since, so, as a result
Because the bridge was precarious, crews closed it at once.
The famished hikers devoured every sandwich within minutes.
General sense (inference) no signal word
Determining a word's meaning in context
Read the whole sentence
Read the sentence containing the word and at least one sentence before and after it; the clue is often outside the target sentence.
Look for a signal
Find a definition, synonym, contrast, example or cause-and-effect signal word.
Check the word parts
Use any prefix, root or suffix you recognize to narrow the meaning and part of speech.
Predict a meaning
Put your own simple word in place of the unknown word before looking at the choices.
Substitute and verify
Plug each likely answer into the sentence; the correct one keeps the sentence logical and the tone consistent.
Figurative language means something other than the literal meaning of the words. The test asks what a figure of speech means in context, so translate it into plain language and check that the translation fits the passage.
a comparison using like or as. The quiet room was like a library at closing time (very still).
a direct comparison without like or as. The new teacher was a lighthouse for anxious students (a steady guide).
Personification
human qualities given to a nonhuman thing. The old furnace groaned all winter.
deliberate exaggeration for effect. I graded a million essays this weekend.
a fixed expression whose meaning cannot be built from its words. Hit the books (study hard); a piece of cake (very easy); under the weather (slightly ill); on the fence (undecided).
Onomatopoeia
a word that imitates a sound, such as buzz, sizzle or thud.
The wrong choices for an idiom question are usually literal readings of the words. If a passage says a principal gave the plan the green light, the answer is that she approved it, not anything about a traffic signal or a color.
Multiple-Meaning Words, Synonyms, Antonyms and Homonyms
Many common words have several meanings, and only context reveals which one the writer intends. Bank may be a financial institution or the edge of a river; table may be furniture or a verb meaning to postpone a discussion; bright may describe light or intelligence. Test items often list several real dictionary meanings, so the correct choice is the one that fits this particular sentence, not the most familiar meaning.
Synonyms words with similar meanings assist / help; brief / concise
Antonyms words with opposite meanings expand / contract; scarce / plentiful
Homonyms same spelling or sound, different meanings a bat (animal) / a bat (baseball)
Homophones same sound, different spelling and meaning their / there / they're; principal / principle
Homographs same spelling, possibly different sound and meaning
WORKED EXAMPLE · VOCABULARY IN CONTEXT
The science fair was nearly cancelled when the gym flooded, but the custodial staff worked through the night to salvage the event. By morning the tables were dry, the displays were reassembled, and the judges arrived on schedule. One parent remarked that the staff had pulled a rabbit out of a hat. The principal was less effusive; she simply thanked the crew in a brief note, though everyone knew how grateful she felt.
As used in the passage, what does salvage most nearly mean? Save or rescue. The fair was nearly cancelled, and the staff's overnight work led to dry tables and an on-time start, so the event was rescued from loss. The cause-and-effect context supports this meaning.
What does the idiom pulled a rabbit out of a hat mean here? Achieved something surprising that seemed impossible. Read literally it refers to a magic trick, but in context it describes the
staff's unexpected success.
What does effusive mean, and which clue shows it?
Expressing feelings in an overflowing, enthusiastic way. The contrast clue less effusive paired with simply thanked the crew in a brief note shows the principal's reaction was restrained, the opposite of effusive.
Questions in this area ask what a passage is mostly about, why the author wrote it, how the author feels about the subject, and which details support or do not support the central point. The skill is the same one a teaching assistant uses when summarizing a memo for a colleague: separate the big point from the evidence and from the extras.
Topic, Main Idea and Supporting Details
The topic is the subject in a word or short phrase (school gardens). The main idea is the complete point the author makes about that topic, expressed as a sentence (School gardens improve students' attitudes toward science and healthy eating). Supporting details are the facts, examples, reasons, statistics, descriptions and quotations that explain or prove
A stated main idea appears in a topic sentence, most often the first sentence of a paragraph, sometimes the last sentence as a summary, and occasionally in the middle after an introductory hook. An implied main idea is never stated outright; the reader builds it by asking what all of the details have in common.
a choice that restates a single detail. It is true but covers only part of the passage.
a choice that could describe a whole book on the subject, not this passage.
a choice that uses words from the passage but changes their relationship or adds an opinion the author did not express.
a choice that every paragraph or sentence of the passage helps to support.
Before reading the answer choices, state the main idea to yourself in one sentence. Then choose the option closest to your sentence and reject any choice that only one detail could support.
Summarizing and outlining are reliable methods for finding a main idea and seeing how details relate to it. A summary restates only the essential points in your own words and in much shorter form, without personal opinion. An outline places the main idea at the top level and arranges supporting points beneath it, which makes irrelevant details easy to spot because they fit under no heading.
Finding the main idea of a passage
Identify the topic
Ask who or what the passage is about; look for the word or idea that repeats.
Find what the author says about it
Look for a topic sentence at the beginning or end; if there is none, note the point each sentence makes.
Group the details
Ask what all of the details have in common; this shared point is the main idea.
Write a one-sentence summary
Combine the topic and the point into a single sentence in your own words.
Check that every major detail supports your sentence and that the sentence is neither too narrow nor too broad.
The author's purpose is the reason for writing. The three broad purposes are to inform (present facts or explain), to persuade (convince the reader to believe or do something) and to entertain (tell a story or amuse). Test items often use more precise verbs, such as to describe, to explain a process, to compare, to criticize, to warn, to recommend or to reflect. The intended audience is the group the writer is addressing, revealed by vocabulary, level of formality, the background knowledge assumed and what the reader is asked to do.
Inform or explain neutral facts, definitions, steps, data a textbook passage on the water cycle
Persuade opinions, should, must, appeals, call to action a letter urging the board to add a crossing guard
Entertain characters, plot, humor, vivid description a short story about a lost class pet a travel piece describing a market
Instruct numbered or ordered steps, commands directions for a fire drill
Point of View and Perspective
In nonfiction, point of view usually means the author's attitude or position on the topic: supportive, critical, neutral, skeptical or mixed. It is revealed by word choice (connotation), by which facts the author includes or leaves out, and by how opposing views are treated. Calling a policy bold and calling it reckless report the same action from opposite perspectives. Tone is the attitude expressed through that phrasing, such as objective, enthusiastic, sarcastic, concerned
Grammatical point of view also matters: first person (I, we) suggests personal experience or a reflective essay; second person (you) is common in directions and persuasive appeals; third person (he, she, they, it) is typical of objective
Neutral reporting sounds balanced and avoids loaded words. If you find strongly positive or negative words such as disastrous, heroic or outrageous, the author is expressing a perspective, not just reporting facts.
A relevant detail supports, illustrates or elaborates on the main idea. An irrelevant detail may be true and even interesting, yet it does not advance the point of the paragraph. The test often asks which sentence could be removed without weakening the passage or which sentence does not belong. To answer, restate the main idea and test each sentence
WORKED EXAMPLE · MAIN IDEA AND AN UNRELATED DETAIL (1) Morning meetings give elementary classes a predictable way to start the day. (2) Students greet one another by name, share brief news and preview the day's schedule. (3) Teachers report that the routine helps anxious students settle in and reduces conflicts before first period. (4) The school's cafeteria recently added a breakfast cart near the main entrance. (5) Because the meeting lasts only fifteen to twenty minutes, it fits into most schedules without
What is the main idea?
Morning meetings are a short, predictable routine that helps classes begin the day well. Sentence 1 states the topic and point, and sentences 2, 3 and 5 explain what happens, why it helps and why it is practical.
Which sentence is unrelated to the main idea?
Sentence 4. The breakfast cart may be accurate, but it says nothing about morning meetings, their benefits or their scheduling.
What is the author's primary purpose?
To inform readers about morning meetings and their benefits. The tone is mostly neutral and descriptive, with no call to action, so
to persuade is too strong.
This topic covers the core comprehension skills: telling fact from opinion, drawing conclusions and inferences that the text actually supports, recognizing how nonfiction is organized, reading graphics accurately and analyzing the elements of stories. The common thread is evidence. A correct answer can always be traced to specific words, numbers or events
A fact is a statement that can be verified as true or false by observation, measurement or a reliable record. An opinion expresses a belief, judgment or feeling that cannot be proven, even if many people share it. A false statement is still a factual claim, not an opinion, because it can be checked. Many sentences mix the two, such as The new library, which opened in March, is the best building in town; the date is checkable, but best is a judgment.
names, places and documented events
I believe, I think, in my view, clearly research results or official records emotionally loaded or exaggerated language
An opinion does not become a fact because an expert states it or because it appears in a report. The superintendent believes the new schedule is more effective reports a fact (what she believes), but the claim that the schedule is more effective
remains an opinion until supported by evidence.
An inference is a logical idea the reader figures out from evidence in the text plus background knowledge; it is not stated directly. A conclusion is a judgment reached after considering several pieces of information. Valid inferences and conclusions stay close to the text. The most common wrong answers go too far (an extreme claim using always, never or all), contradict a detail, or are simply possible rather than supported.
Locate the evidence
Find the exact words, actions or numbers the question is about.
Ask what they suggest
Combine the clues with common knowledge: what is most likely true?
Compare the choices
Eliminate choices that contradict the text or that require information not given.
Prefer the cautious choice
Choose the answer that is clearly supported, even if it sounds modest, over a dramatic claim.
Structure of Expository and Nonfiction Text
Expository text explains or informs, and writers organize it in recognizable patterns. Identifying the pattern helps a reader predict content, locate details and answer questions about how the passage is built.
Chronological or sequence events or steps in order
Cause and effect why something happens and its results because, since, therefore, as a result, led to
Compare and contrast similarities and differences
Problem and solution a difficulty and a response
Description features of one subject for example, such as, characteristics include
Classification items sorted into categories
Nonfiction also uses text features that a reader should use deliberately: titles and headings preview content; bold or italic terms mark key vocabulary; a glossary defines terms; an index lists page locations; captions explain images; sidebars add related information; and footnotes give sources or extra detail. A question such as Where would a reader most likely find the meaning of a highlighted term? is answered by the glossary, not the index.
Charts, Tables, Maps and Diagrams
Graphic questions test careful reading more than calculation. Before answering, read the title, the axis labels or column headings, the units, the key or legend, and any notes. Many wrong answers come from reading the wrong row, ignoring units (hundreds versus thousands) or assuming a graph shows a cause when it shows only a pattern.
find the row and column that intersect; check whether totals or averages are given.
compares amounts across categories; read the scale carefully, since it may not start at zero.
shows change over time; rising, falling and flat segments are trends.
Circle (pie) graph
shows parts of a whole; all sectors add to 100 percent.
use the legend for symbols, the compass rose for direction and the scale for distance.
Diagram or flowchart
labels name parts; arrows show sequence or direction.
events placed in chronological order at proportional intervals.
WORKED EXAMPLE · READING A TABLE
Library books checked out by grade, first and second semester: / Grade 3: 420 and 510. Grade 4: 380 and 360. Grade 5: 300 and 450. / A note below the table states that Grade 5 began a weekly reading challenge at the start of
Which grade showed the greatest increase?
Which conclusion is best supported?
Grade 5's checkouts rose sharply in the semester its reading challenge began. The table shows the timing matches, but it cannot prove the challenge caused the increase, so a choice claiming that the challenge caused the rise goes further than the data.
What was the total number of checkouts in the second semester?
Elements of Fiction and Narrative Text
Narrative questions ask about the building blocks of stories. Know each term precisely, because answer choices often swap related terms such as theme and main idea, or setting and mood.
a person or figure in the story; the protagonist is the main character, the antagonist opposes the protagonist how the author reveals a character: actions, speech, thoughts, others' reactions, description
Setting when and where the story takes place sequence of events: exposition, rising action, climax, falling action, resolution the central struggle: character vs. character, self, society or nature the message or insight about life, usually implied, such as honesty restores trust mood is the feeling the reader gets; tone is the author's or narrator's attitude
A theme is a general statement about life, not a summary of events. Lena returns the wallet is plot; Doing the right thing can matter more than reward is theme.
Narrative inference questions work the same way as nonfiction ones: a character's feelings and motives are rarely named, so the reader infers them from actions, dialogue, physical reactions and the choices the character makes.
WORKED EXAMPLE · INFERENCE IN A NARRATIVE
Marcus stood at the edge of the stage, gripping his index cards so hard they bent. He had practiced the speech every night for a week, reciting it to his little sister until she could say it with him. Now the auditorium hummed with voices. When Ms. Ortiz called his name, he took a breath, set the cards face down on the podium and began.
How does Marcus most likely feel at the start?
Nervous. The inference rests on the detail that he grips the cards so hard they bend, a physical sign of anxiety.
What can be inferred from his setting the cards face down?
He has memorized the speech and has decided to rely on his preparation. The week of nightly practice supports this; nothing
suggests he forgot the cards or plans to stop.
What is the point of view of the narration?
Third person. The narrator refers to Marcus as he, and in this excerpt the narrator reports only Marcus's actions, not other
characters' thoughts.
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