ParaPathways (5757)

This chapter covers the rest of the comprehension and inference knowledge statement: drawing inferences, conclusions and connections from both direct and indirect information, and judging how textual evidence such as facts, statistics, quotations and comparisons supports a claim. Inference questions are where many test takers lose points, not because the skill is hard, but because they either refuse to go beyond the text at all or go much too far beyond it.

An inference is a logical conclusion based on evidence in the text plus what you already know about the world. The author does not say it directly, but the clues point to it so strongly that a careful reader would agree. A simple formula captures the idea:

Text clues + background knowledge = inference.

Suppose a passage says, "Marisol pulled her hood up, stepped around the puddles, and shook out her umbrella before going inside." The text never says it is raining, but the clues (hood, puddles, umbrella) and your knowledge of the world make that inference safe. You could not safely infer that Marisol dislikes rain, that she forgot her boots, or that she is late. Nothing points to those.

The knowledge statement mentions direct and indirect information. Direct information is stated outright ("The bus was forty minutes late"). Indirect information is suggested through details, word choice, actions or dialogue ("By the time the bus finally squealed around the corner, half the people at the stop had given up and called rides"). Both kinds can lead to conclusions, but indirect information requires you to do the connecting yourself.

Direct Versus Indirect Information

Read this original passage.

For years, the Willow Street community pool closed every Labor Day. This summer, the city council voted to keep it open through September for a trial run. Attendance on September weekends turned out to be about half of August weekend attendance, but the number of swimming lessons booked in September was the highest of any month. Several parents told the council that cooler weather and smaller crowds made it easier for nervous children to learn.

Evaluating Inferences About the Pool Passage

Worked Example: Based on the pool passage, which conclusion is most reasonable?

Identify the facts: weekend attendance fell, lessons rose, parents praised smaller crowds.

Find the conclusion that uses more than one fact without adding new claims.

A conclusion such as "Keeping the pool open in September served some residents well even though overall attendance was lower" uses both the lower attendance and the strong lesson numbers.

In stories, you infer character traits, feelings, motives and relationships from what characters say and do. Authors "show" rather than "tell." Read this original excerpt.

Grandpa Ruiz set two cups on the counter, then put one back in the cabinet. He poured his coffee, sat in the chair by the window, and turned the radio to the baseball game, the volume low. When the announcer called a home run, he looked toward the empty chair across from him and smiled a little, as if someone had said something funny.

A careful reader can infer that Grandpa Ruiz used to share this routine with someone who is no longer there, perhaps a spouse, and that he is still adjusting. Clues include the second cup he puts away, the empty chair, and the private smile. The text does not say whether the person died, moved away or is in the hospital, so a choice that names exactly what happened would go too far. A choice that says he is "angry about being alone" would also go too far, since his small smile suggests fond memory rather than anger.

Clues to Character in Stories

The knowledge statement also mentions drawing connections. Connections can be inside one passage (how paragraph 2 relates to paragraph 4), between two short passages (how two authors' views compare), or between a text and a graphic (what a chart adds to an article). Questions might ask: "How does the second paragraph relate to the first?" Typical answers include "It gives an example of the idea introduced in the first," "It presents an exception to the claim in the first," or "It describes the result of the problem in the first."

When two passages are paired, ask yourself three things: What does each author think? Where do they agree? Where do they differ? A pair of letters about a later school start time might agree that teenagers need more sleep but disagree about whether bus schedules make the change realistic.

Evidence is the information a writer uses to support a claim. Reading questions about evidence ask you to identify which piece of evidence supports a claim, or to explain how a piece of evidence supports it. The main types are:

Types of Textual Evidence

Strong evidence is relevant (it is about the actual claim), specific (it gives concrete details rather than vague statements) and sufficient (there is enough of it). An anecdote is vivid, but one story does not prove a general claim. A statistic is precise, but only if it measures the thing the claim is about.

A fact can be proven true or false. An opinion expresses a belief, feeling or judgment. Opinion words include best, worst, should, beautiful, terrible, believe and feel. Opinions are not useless; an expert's opinion is a legitimate form of support. But on questions asking for the strongest evidence, verifiable facts and relevant statistics usually beat bare opinion.

"The new playground is the best in the county" is an opinion. "The new playground has a ramp to every play level and is the only one in the county with a wheelchair swing" is a set of facts that could support the opinion.

Classroom questions about inference often show a student who answers correctly but cannot explain why, or a student who makes an unsupported guess.

Classroom Connection: During a small-group lesson, a student says the character in a story is "rich." You do not see any evidence. Instead of saying "No, that's wrong," ask, "What in the story made you think that? Can you show me the line?" If the student points to "the shiny new bike," you can affirm the clue and then ask whether one bike is enough to know. This teaches students that inferences need evidence, which is exactly what the teacher's lesson on citing evidence is aiming for.

Helpful prompts for building inference skills:

"What clues did the author give you?"

"What do you already know about situations like this?"

"Put those together. What do you think is going on?"

"Which sentence would you show someone to prove your idea?"

Exam Tip: In classroom questions about evidence, the best response almost always asks the student to return to the text. Prompts like "Show me where it says that" or "What words gave you that idea?" are strong. Responses that simply judge the answer right or wrong, or that tell the student what to think, are weaker.

An inference combines text clues with background knowledge; it must be supported by something you can point to in the passage.

The best inference is supported but not overstated; be wary of absolute words and of choices that are merely true in real life.

In stories, infer traits and feelings from actions, dialogue, thoughts, other characters' reactions and chosen details.

Evidence types include facts, statistics, quotations, examples, comparisons and anecdotes; strong evidence is relevant, specific and sufficient.

The best evidence matches the exact claim, not just the general topic.

With students, ask them to return to the text and name the clues behind their thinking.