Praxis 5086

British attempts to pay war debts through colonial taxation sparked resistance. The Sugar Act (1764) and Stamp Act (1765) imposed direct taxes on colonists. Colonial response invoked the principle of "no taxation without representation." The Stamp Act Congress (1765) coordinated intercolonial protest.

The Townshend Acts (1767) taxed imported goods and created writs of assistance for searches. Colonial boycotts and the Boston Massacre (1770), in which British soldiers killed five colonists, intensified tensions. The Tea Act (1773) prompted the Boston Tea Party, leading to the Coercive Acts (1774), which colonists called the Intolerable Acts. These closed Boston Harbor, restricted Massachusetts self-government, and quartered troops in private homes.

The First Continental Congress (1774) coordinated colonial response, establishing the Continental Association to enforce boycotts. Fighting began at Lexington and Concord in April 1775.

The Second Continental Congress appointed Thomas Jefferson to draft the Declaration of Independence, adopted July 4, 1776. Influenced by Enlightenment thinker John Locke, it articulated natural rights (life, liberty, pursuit of happiness), social contract theory, and the right of revolution against tyrannical government. The document listed grievances against King George III and declared independence.

Revolutionary War (1775–1783)

American advantages included fighting on home territory, knowledge of terrain, and strong motivation. Disadvantages included lack of a professional army, no navy, limited manufacturing, and no central taxing authority. British advantages included a professional military, naval supremacy, and greater resources. Disadvantages included long supply lines, fighting far from home, and underestimating colonial resolve.

Key turning points: The Battle of Saratoga (1777) convinced France to enter as an American ally, providing troops, naval support, and loans. The harsh winter at Valley Forge (1777–1778) tested American resolve but emerged with a better-trained army under Baron von Steuben. The Battle of Yorktown (1781) ended major fighting when Washington, with French assistance, trapped Cornwallis's army.

The Treaty of Paris (1783) recognized American independence, established boundaries from the Atlantic to the Mississippi River and from Canada to Florida, and granted fishing rights off Newfoundland.

The first national government (1781–1789) featured a weak central authority reflecting colonial fear of concentrated power. Congress had no power to tax, regulate commerce, or enforce laws. Each state had one vote regardless of population. Amendments required unanimous consent; major legislation required nine of thirteen states.

Weaknesses became apparent: inability to pay war debts, no common currency, interstate trade disputes, and inability to respond to Shays' Rebellion (1786–1787) in Massachusetts, where indebted farmers protested foreclosures. The rebellion demonstrated the need for a stronger national government.

Delegates met in Philadelphia to revise the Articles but instead created a new constitution. Key compromises included:

The Great Compromise resolved representation disputes by creating a bicameral legislature with proportional representation in the House and equal state representation in the Senate.

The Three-Fifths Compromise counted enslaved persons as three-fifths of a person for representation and taxation, increasing southern political power.

The Commerce Compromise gave Congress power to regulate interstate and foreign commerce but prohibited export taxes and restricted congressional interference with the slave trade until 1808.

The Constitution established separation of powers among legislative, executive, and judicial branches with checks and balances. Federalism divided power between national and state governments.

Federalists (Hamilton, Madison, Jay) supported ratification, arguing for a strong central government. The Federalist Papers articulated constitutional principles, including Federalist No. 10 on factions and Federalist No. 51 on checks and balances.

Anti-Federalists (Patrick Henry, George Mason) opposed ratification, fearing centralized tyranny and demanding a bill of rights. Their concerns led to the promise of amendments, resulting in the Bill of Rights (1791)—the first ten amendments protecting individual liberties and reserving powers to states and people.