United States History · 3 min read
The American Revolution (1763-1789)
British postwar policies ignited colonial resistance. The Proclamation of 1763 prohibited colonial settlement west of the Appalachian Mountains, frustrating land speculators and settlers. The Sugar Act (1764) and Stamp Act (1765) imposed direct taxes on colonists, violating the principle of no taxation without representation. Colonial protests including the Stamp Act Congress and boycotts of British goods forced repeal, but Parliament asserted its authority through the Declaratory Act.
The Townshend Acts (1767) imposed duties on imported goods and established writs of assistance for enforcement. Colonial resistance intensified with the Boston Massacre (1770) and the formation of Committees of Correspondence to coordinate opposition. The Tea Act (1773) prompted the Boston Tea Party, leading to the Coercive Acts (Intolerable Acts) that closed Boston Harbor and restricted Massachusetts self-governance.
The First Continental Congress (1774) coordinated colonial response through boycotts and petitions. Fighting began at Lexington and Concord in April 1775. The Second Continental Congress assumed governmental functions, establishing the Continental Army under George Washington's command. Thomas Paine's Common Sense (1776) articulated arguments for independence in accessible language that galvanized public opinion.
The Declaration of Independence, drafted primarily by Thomas Jefferson and adopted July 4, 1776, articulated Enlightenment principles including natural rights, social contract theory, and the right of revolution against tyrannical government. The document's assertion that "all men are created equal" established ideals that would later drive movements for expanded rights.
The Revolutionary War presented significant challenges for the Continental Army including inadequate supplies, short enlistments, and lack of naval power. Key turning points included the victory at Saratoga (1777) which secured French alliance, and the winter at Valley Forge which hardened surviving troops. The war concluded with British surrender at Yorktown (1781) and the Treaty of Paris (1783) recognizing American independence.
The Articles of Confederation, ratified in 1781, created a weak central government reflecting fears of concentrated power. Congress lacked authority to tax, regulate commerce, or enforce laws. Shays' Rebellion (1786-1787) highlighted governmental weakness when Massachusetts farmers protested debt collection and foreclosures. This crisis strengthened arguments for a stronger national government.
The Constitutional Convention (1787) assembled delegates in Philadelphia to revise the Articles but ultimately created an entirely new framework. Key compromises included the Great Compromise establishing bicameral legislature with proportional representation in the House and equal state representation in the Senate. The Three-Fifths Compromise counted enslaved persons as three-fifths for representation and taxation purposes. The Commerce Compromise gave Congress power to regulate interstate and foreign commerce but prohibited export taxes and restricted interference with the slave trade until 1808.
The Constitution established federalism dividing power between national and state governments, separation of powers among legislative, executive, and judicial branches, and checks and balances enabling each branch to limit others. Ratification debates between Federalists supporting the Constitution and Anti-Federalists opposing it produced The Federalist Papers defending the new framework. Anti-Federalist concerns prompted the Bill of Rights, the first ten amendments protecting individual liberties and reserving powers to states and people.
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