Praxis Core

This competency area examines how authors construct texts and use language to achieve specific purposes.

Author's Purpose

Every text is written for a reason, and understanding the purpose helps you interpret the content accurately.

Consider the type of publication, and ask what the author wants readers to do, think, or feel after reading. Examine word choice: objective language suggests an informative purpose; emotional language suggests a persuasive one.

Audience Awareness

Authors tailor their writing to specific audiences. Recognizing the intended audience explains choices in vocabulary, tone, and content.

Indicator	WhatItSuggests
Vocabularylevel	Technicaljargonsuggestsaspecializedaudience;simplelanguagesuggestsageneralaudience
Assumedknowledge	Iftheauthorexplainsbasicconcepts theaudiencemaybeunfamiliarwiththesubject ,
Tone	Aformaltonesuggestsaprofessionaloracademicaudience;acasualtonesuggestsageneralor
	youngeraudience
Publicationcontext	Amedicaljournaltargetsphysicians;aparentingmagazinetargetscaregivers

Tone and Attitude

Tone reflects the author's attitude toward the subject or audience. It is conveyed through word choice, sentence structure, and rhetorical strategies. To identify tone, pay attention to adjectives and adverbs, notice whether the language is strong or mild, and consider what emotions the writing evokes.

Commontones

Commontones(Continued)

Tone	Description	Tone	Description
Enthusiastic	Positive excited supportive , ,	Condescending	Patronizing superior ,
Cautionary	Warning concerned advisory , ,	Optimistic	Hopeful positiveoutlook ,
Satirical	Mocking ironic humorouswithpurpose , ,	Pessimistic	Negative doubtful ,

Point of View

Point of view indicates the perspective from which a text is written.

Text Structure

Authors organize information in deliberate ways. To identify structure, look for signal words and phrases, consider how paragraphs relate to each other, and ask how the organization serves the author's purpose.

Structure	WhatItDoes
Descriptive	Providesdetailedinformationaboutasubject'scharacteristics
Sequential/chronological	Presentsinformationintimeorder
Compare/contrast	Examinessimilaritiesanddifferences
Cause/effect	Showsrelationshipsbetweeneventsorconditions
Problem/solution	Identifiesaproblemandproposessolutions
Orderofimportance	Arrangesinformationfrommosttoleastsignificant orthereverse ,

Rhetorical Strategies

Authors use rhetorical appeals and devices to achieve their purposes.

Device	Defi nition
Repetition	Emphasizesideasthroughrestatement
Parallelism	Usessimilargrammaticalstructuresforrelatedideas
Rhetoricalquestion	Asksaquestionforeffectratherthanforananswer
Analogy	Comparesanunfamiliarconcepttoafamiliarone
Anecdote	Usesabriefstorytoillustrateapoint
Hyperbole	Usesexaggerationforemphasis
Understatement	Downplayssignificanceforironiceffect

Language and Word Choice

Diction (word choice) shapes meaning and tone. Formal diction uses standard vocabulary and avoids contractions, slang, and colloquialisms; informal diction uses everyday language and may include contractions and conversational expressions. Concrete language refers to specific, tangible things (an oak tree, a red bicycle), while abstract language refers to concepts and ideas (freedom, justice). Effective writing often uses concrete language to illustrate abstract concepts.

Device	Defi nition	Example
Simile	Acomparisonusinglikeoras	“Thenewsspreadlikewildfire” .
Metaphor	Adirectcomparisonwithoutlikeoras	“Timeismoney” .
Personification	Humanqualitiesgiventononhumanthings	“Thewindwhisperedthroughthetrees” .
Imagery	Descriptivelanguagethatappealstothesenses	“Thecrisp coldairstungourcheeks” , .

Transitions and Coherence

Transitions connect ideas and signal the relationships between them. They help readers follow the author's reasoning and maintain coherence across paragraphs.

Relationship	Transitions
Addition	also furthermore moreover inaddition , , ,
Contrast	however nevertheless ontheotherhand although , , ,
Cause/effect	therefore consequently asaresult because , , ,
Example Time Summary	forinstance forexample specifically toillustrate , , , first then next finally meanwhile subsequently , , , , , inconclusion tosummarize overall inshort , , ,	1

This competency area assesses your ability to analyze arguments, evaluate evidence, compare texts, and synthesize information.

Analyzing Arguments

An argument consists of a claim supported by evidence and reasoning.

➜

➜

➜

The main assertion or position

Facts, examples, statistics, or

The logical link between

Acknowledgment and refutation

the author defends

testimony

evidence and claim

of opposing views

Evaluate the…	Ask
Claim	Isitclearlystated?Isitspecificenoughtobesupported?Isittoobroadorabsolute?
Evidence	Isitrelevanttotheclaim?Isitsufficientinquantity?Isitfromcrediblesources?Isitcurrent?
Reasoning	Doestheevidencelogicallysupporttheclaim?Aretheregapsinthelogic?Doestheauthormakeunwarranted
	assumptions?

Identifying Assumptions

Assumptions are unstated beliefs underlying an argument. Value assumptions are beliefs about what is good, right, or important; factual assumptions are beliefs about how the world works. To find a hidden assumption, ask: What must be true for this argument to be valid? What does the author take for granted?

Logical Fallacies

Fallacies are errors in reasoning that weaken arguments.

Fallacy	Defi nition
Adhominem	Attackingthepersonratherthantheargument
Strawman	Misrepresentinganopponent'spositiontomakeiteasiertoattack
Falsedilemma	Presentingonlytwooptionswhenmoreexist
Slipperyslope	Claimingoneeventwillinevitablyleadtoextremeconsequenceswithoutjustification
Circularreasoning	Usingtheconclusionasapremise
Hastygeneralization	Drawingbroadconclusionsfromlimitedevidence
Appealtoauthority	Citinganauthoritywholacksrelevantexpertise
Bandwagon Redherring Falsecause	Arguingsomethingistruebecausemanypeoplebelieveit Introducingirrelevantinformationtodistractfromthemainissue Assumingthatbecauseoneeventfollowsanother thefirstcausedthesecond ,	1

Evaluating Sources

Critical readers assess the reliability and credibility of sources using five criteria.

Criterion	QuestiontoAsk
Authority	Istheauthorqualified?Whataretheauthor'scredentials?
Accuracy	Istheinformationverifiable?Doesitmatchotherreliablesources?
Objectivity	Isthesourcebiased?Doesitpresentmultipleperspectives?
Currency	Istheinformationcurrent?Whenwasitpublishedorupdated?
Coverage	Doesthesourceprovidesufficientdepth?

Comparing and Synthesizing Texts

Some questions require you to compare paired passages or integrate information from different sources. When comparing, identify similarities and differences in main ideas, perspectives, evidence, and rhetorical strategies, and consider why authors might approach the same topic differently. When synthesizing, combine information from multiple sources into a comprehensive understanding: identify areas of agreement and disagreement and determine how the sources complement or contradict each other.

Interpreting Visual Information

Reading passages may include charts, graphs, tables, or diagrams. Identify the title and labels, understand the axes and units, note trends, patterns, and outliers, and determine what conclusions the data support. Then consider how the visual relates to the text: does it provide evidence, examples, or a summary of the written claims?