Food and Nutrition · 9 min read
Food Safety and Sanitation
Foodborne Illness and Food Hazards
Foodborne illness results from eating or drinking contaminated food; the CDC estimates that roughly 1 in 6 Americans is affected each year. An outbreak is two or more cases of the same illness traced to a common food. Young children, older adults, pregnant women, and people with weakened immune systems are most likely to become seriously ill. A hazard is anything in food that can cause illness or injury; cross-contamination carries pathogens from one food or surface to another.
| Pathogen | Typical Sources | Key Prevention |
|---|---|---|
| Salmonella | Poultry, eggs, raw produce, unpasteurized milk | Cook poultry to 165°F; avoid cross-contamination |
| E. coli O157:H7 (STEC) | Undercooked ground beef, raw milk, leafy greens | Cook ground beef thoroughly; wash produce |
| Listeria monocytogenes | Deli meats, hot dogs, soft cheeses; grows in the refrigerator | Heed use-by dates; high risk in pregnancy |
| Clostridium botulinum | Improperly canned low-acid foods, garlic-in-oil; honey (infants) | Pressure can low-acid foods; discard bulging cans |
| Clostridium perfringens | Large batches of meat, stew, or gravy cooled or held improperly | Cool quickly; hold hot at 135°F or above |
| Staphylococcus aureus | Handlers' skin, nose, and cuts; toxin survives cooking | Wash hands; cover cuts; control time and temperature |
| Campylobacter | Raw poultry, unpasteurized milk, untreated water | Cook poultry to 165°F; avoid cross-contamination |
| Norovirus | Infected food handlers, ready-to-eat foods, shellfish | Handwashing; exclude ill workers |
| Hepatitis A virus | Infected food handlers, contaminated water, raw shellfish | Handwashing; vaccination; exclude ill workers |
| Parasites | Trichinella (pork, wild game), Toxoplasma (meat, cat feces), Giardia (water) | Cook meat thoroughly; use safe water |
Clean, Separate, Cook, Chill
- Clean: wash hands, utensils, and surfaces often; rinse produce under running water without soap.
- Separate: keep raw meat and its juices away from ready-to-eat food; use separate cutting boards and plates.
- Cook: verify the internal temperature with a food thermometer; color is not a reliable guide.
- Chill: refrigerate within 2 hours (1 hour above 90°F); refrigerator at 40°F or below, freezer at 0°F.
Two sets of numbers are in use: USDA guidance for home cooks and the FDA Food Code, the model that state and local agencies adopt for restaurants and school food service. The Food Code is the standard for a foods lab or culinary program.
| Food | Consumer Guidance (USDA) | FDA Food Code (Food Service) |
|---|---|---|
| Poultry, stuffing, and stuffed foods | 165°F | 165°F |
| Leftovers, casseroles, reheated foods | 165°F | 165°F within 2 hours (reheating for hot holding) |
| Ground beef, pork, veal, lamb | 160°F | 155°F for 17 seconds |
| Eggs and egg dishes | Yolk and white firm; egg dishes 160°F | 145°F for 15 seconds if served at once |
| Steaks, chops, and roasts of beef, pork, veal, lamb | 145°F plus a 3-minute rest | 145°F for 15 seconds (roasts 4 minutes) |
| Fish and shellfish | 145°F | 145°F for 15 seconds |
| Vegetables, grains, and packaged ready-to-eat foods held hot | Follow package directions | 135°F |
| Standard | Consumer Guidance (USDA) | FDA Food Code |
|---|---|---|
| Temperature danger zone | 40–140°F | 41–135°F |
| Cold holding | Refrigerator at 40°F or below | 41°F or below |
| Hot holding | 140°F or above | 135°F or above |
| Time without temperature control | 2 hours (1 hour above 90°F) | Generally 4 hours, then discard |
Cooling, Thawing, and Storage
Speed cooling with shallow pans, small portions, an ice-water bath, or an ice paddle. Safe thawing methods are in the refrigerator; in cold water changed every 30 minutes (food service: under running water at 70°F or below) or in the microwave, each followed by immediate cooking; or as part of cooking. Never thaw on the counter.
| Food | Refrigerator (40°F or Below) | Freezer (0°F), Best Quality |
|---|---|---|
| Raw ground meat; raw poultry | 1–2 days | 3–4 months; poultry 9–12 months |
| Raw steaks, chops, roasts | 3–5 days | 4–12 months |
| Cooked meat and leftovers | 3–4 days | 2–6 months |
| Eggs in the shell | 3–5 weeks | Do not freeze in the shell |
| Hard cheese, opened | 3–4 weeks | About 6 months |
| Milk; bread | Milk: about 1 week | About 3 months |
Personal Hygiene, Sanitation, and Lab Safety
Handwashing takes at least 20 seconds: wet hands with warm running water, apply soap, scrub hands, wrists, and under nails, rinse, and dry with a single-use towel. Wash before handling food and after using the restroom, touching raw meat, the face, or hair, sneezing, handling garbage, and before putting on gloves. Food handlers also restrain hair, wear clean aprons, remove jewelry, cover cuts with a bandage and glove, avoid bare-hand contact with ready-to-eat food, and stay away when ill with vomiting or diarrhea.
| Step | Purpose and Method |
|---|---|
| Cleaning | Removes visible food and soil with detergent and water; always comes first because sanitizer does not work on a dirty surface |
| Sanitizing | Reduces pathogens to safe levels with heat (171°F water for 30 seconds) or a chemical (chlorine, quaternary ammonium, iodine) mixed to the labeled concentration and checked with test strips |
| Three-compartment sink | Scrape, wash, rinse, sanitize, and air dry; never towel dry |
| Home rule of thumb | 1 tablespoon unscented liquid chlorine bleach per gallon of water is consumer guidance; a foods lab follows the label and verifies strength |
Kitchen and Lab Safety
| Hazard | Prevention | First Response |
|---|---|---|
| Cuts | Keep knives sharp; anchor the cutting board; never catch a falling knife or leave knives in a sink | Direct pressure with a clean cloth; bandage and glove before returning to food |
| Burns | Dry potholders; handles turned inward; lift lids away from the face | Cool running water for at least 10 minutes; no ice or butter |
| Grease fire | Never leave hot fat unattended; keep hoods clean | Turn off heat; smother with a lid or baking soda; never use water |
| Falls, shock, chemicals | Wipe spills at once; keep hands and cords dry; store chemicals away from food | Cut power before touching a shock victim; follow the Safety Data Sheet |
A Class K extinguisher is made for cooking oils and fats in commercial kitchens; a multipurpose ABC extinguisher handles ordinary combustibles (A), flammable liquids (B), and electrical fires (C). Operate it with PASS: pull, aim at the base, squeeze, sweep. For an oven fire, keep the door closed and turn off the heat.
HACCP, the Farm-to-Table Chain, and Regulation
Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) is a preventive system that controls hazards during production instead of relying on inspection of the finished product. It is required for meat and poultry plants (USDA), seafood and juice processors (FDA), and, in adapted form, school meal programs.
| Principle | In Practice |
|---|---|
| 1. Conduct a hazard analysis | Identify biological, chemical, and physical hazards at each step |
| 2. Determine critical control points (CCPs) | Steps where control is essential: cooking, cooling, holding |
| 3. Establish critical limits | Measurable boundaries, such as 165°F for chicken |
| 4. Establish monitoring procedures | Who measures, how, and how often |
| 5. Establish corrective actions | Continue cooking, reheat, or discard when a limit is missed |
| 6. Establish verification procedures | Calibrate thermometers; review logs |
| 7. Establish record keeping | Temperature logs, corrective actions, and the written plan |
Contamination can occur at any link: irrigation water or manure in the field, equipment in the plant, a broken cold chain in transport, or a cutting board at home. Traceability along the chain makes a recall possible, and the Food Safety Modernization Act (FSMA) shifted FDA's emphasis from responding to contamination to preventing it.
| Agency | Responsibility |
|---|---|
| USDA Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS) | Inspects meat, poultry, and processed egg products |
| Food and Drug Administration (FDA) | Most other foods (seafood, produce, shell eggs); labeling; the model Food Code |
| Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) | Tracks illness and investigates outbreaks; does not regulate food |
| Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) | Sets pesticide tolerances and drinking-water standards |
| State and local health departments | Adopt and enforce food codes; inspect restaurants, schools, and stores |
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