Verbal communication uses words to convey meaning. Understanding language structure and function is essential for effective communication.
Language Defined
Language is a system of symbols governed by rules for combining them to produce meaning. Languages are arbitrary (no inherent connection between words and referents), ambiguous (words can have multiple meanings), and abstract (words represent concepts at varying levels of specificity).
Properties of Language
Symbolic Nature
Words are symbols that represent objects, ideas, events, and relationships. The word "chair" is not the actual object but a symbol representing it. This symbolic nature allows humans to discuss abstract concepts, past events, and future possibilities.
Rule-Governed
Language operates according to systematic rules. Phonological rules govern sound combinations. Syntactic rules structure sentences. Semantic rules assign meaning to words. Pragmatic rules guide language use in social contexts.
Levels of Abstraction
Language ranges from concrete (specific, observable) to abstract (general, conceptual). "My golden retriever Max" is concrete. "Pet" is more abstract. "Companion" is highly abstract. Effective communicators match abstraction level to purpose.
Language and Meaning
Denotation
The dictionary definition of a word—its objective, literal meaning. "Home" denotes a place where one lives.
Connotation
The emotional associations and subjective meanings attached to words. "Home" connotes warmth, safety, and belonging for many people. Connotations vary among individuals and cultures.
Triangle of Meaning
Developed by Ogden and Richards, this model illustrates that words (symbols) connect to thoughts (references) which connect to things (referents). There is no direct connection between words and things—meaning exists in people's minds, not in words themselves.
Language and Culture
Language reflects and shapes cultural values. The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis suggests language influences thought and perception. Strong versions claim language determines thought. Weak versions suggest language influences but does not determine thinking.
High-Context Cultures: Rely heavily on context, nonverbal cues, and shared understanding. Messages are often indirect and implicit. Examples include Japanese, Chinese, and Arabic cultures.
Low-Context Cultures: Rely primarily on explicit verbal messages. Direct communication is valued. Examples include German, Scandinavian, and American cultures.
Language Barriers
Bypassing
Occurs when people assign different meanings to the same words. One person says "soon" meaning within minutes; another interprets it as within days.
Euphemisms
Mild or vague expressions substituting for harsh or direct ones. "Passed away" for "died." While sometimes appropriate, excessive euphemism can obscure meaning.
Jargon
Specialized vocabulary of a profession or group. Helpful among insiders but creates barriers with outsiders. Technical jargon should be explained or avoided with general audiences.
Slang
Informal vocabulary specific to groups or time periods. Creates in-group identity but may exclude others or become quickly dated.
Equivocation
Using ambiguous language to avoid commitment or mislead. "I'll try to be there" avoids direct commitment.
Nonverbal communication encompasses all messages transmitted without words. Research suggests nonverbal cues carry significant weight in conveying meaning, particularly emotional and relational information.
Characteristics of Nonverbal Communication
Continuous
Unlike verbal communication with clear beginnings and endings, nonverbal communication is ongoing. We constantly send nonverbal signals whether intentional or not.
Multichanneled
Nonverbal messages occur simultaneously through multiple channels—facial expressions, voice, posture, gesture, and proximity all communicate at once.
Ambiguous
Nonverbal cues often have multiple possible interpretations. A frown might indicate confusion, concentration, disapproval, or physical discomfort.
Culturally Influenced
Nonverbal norms vary significantly across cultures. Eye contact, personal space, touch, and gestures carry different meanings in different cultural contexts.
More Believable
When verbal and nonverbal messages conflict, receivers typically trust nonverbal cues. A person saying "I'm fine" while crying will be perceived as distressed.
Functions of Nonverbal Communication
Repeating
Nonverbal cues reinforce verbal messages. Pointing while giving directions repeats the verbal instruction.
Substituting
Nonverbal cues replace verbal messages. A wave substitutes for saying "goodbye."
Complementing
Nonverbal cues add to verbal messages. A sincere tone complements the words "I'm sorry."
Accenting
Nonverbal cues emphasize parts of verbal messages. Pounding the table accents a key point.
Regulating
Nonverbal cues control the flow of conversation. Eye contact, pauses, and gestures signal turn-taking.
Contradicting
Nonverbal cues conflict with verbal messages. Saying "I'm not angry" through clenched teeth contradicts the words.
Types of Nonverbal Communication
Kinesics (Body Movement)
Facial expressions are primary conveyors of emotion. Research by Paul Ekman identified six universal facial expressions: happiness, sadness, fear, anger, surprise, and disgust. These are recognized across cultures, though display rules (cultural norms about expressing emotion) vary.
Eye contact (oculesics) serves multiple functions: regulating interaction, expressing emotions, signaling attention, and influencing relationships. Direct eye contact is valued in Western cultures but may be disrespectful in others.
Gestures fall into categories:
Emblems
Gestures with specific verbal translations (thumbs up = approval)
Illustrators
Gestures accompanying speech to clarify or emphasize
Affect displays
Gestures expressing emotion
Regulators
Gestures controlling interaction flow
Adaptors
Unconscious gestures satisfying personal needs (touching hair when nervous)
Posture and body orientation communicate attitudes. Open posture (uncrossed arms, facing toward) suggests receptivity. Closed posture may indicate defensiveness or discomfort.
Paralanguage (Vocal Cues)
Paralanguage encompasses how something is said rather than what is said. Elements include:
Pitch
Highness or lowness of voice
Volume
Loudness or softness
Quality
Distinctive characteristics of a voice
Pauses
Silences within speech (filled pauses like "um" or unfilled pauses)
Tone
Emotional quality conveyed through voice
Paralanguage conveys emotions, attitudes, and emphasis. The same words delivered with different vocal cues carry different meanings.
Proxemics (Space)
Edward Hall identified four distance zones in American culture:
Intimate distance (0-18 inches)
Reserved for close relationships
Personal distance (18 inches-4 feet)
Comfortable for friends and acquaintances
Social distance (4-12 feet)
Used for impersonal business and casual social interaction
Public distance (12+ feet)
Used for public speaking and formal occasions
Territoriality refers to claiming and defending space. Primary territories are owned and controlled (homes, offices). Secondary territories are regularly used but not owned (favorite seat in classroom). Public territories are available to anyone.
Haptics (Touch)
Touch communicates a range of messages from support and affection to power and control. Categories include:
Functional-professional
Impersonal, task-related (doctor's examination)
Social-polite
Acknowledging others (handshake)
Friendship-warmth
Expressing liking (pat on back)
Love-intimacy
Expressing emotional attachment (embrace)
Sexual-arousal
Expressing physical attraction
Touch norms vary by culture, relationship, context, and gender. Inappropriate touch can constitute harassment.
Chronemics (Time)
Time communicates value, status, and cultural orientation. Being late may signal disrespect or lower status in monochronic cultures (time is linear, scheduled, segmented). Polychronic cultures view time more fluidly, with multiple activities occurring simultaneously.
Response time also communicates. Quick responses suggest engagement; delayed responses may indicate lower priority.
Physical Appearance
Appearance conveys information about identity, status, and group membership. Clothing, grooming, accessories, and body modifications all communicate. While appearance judgments can be superficial or biased, appearance significantly influences first impressions.
Artifacts
Objects in our environment communicate about us. Office decorations, car choices, and personal possessions signal identity, values, and status.
Environment
Physical settings influence communication. Room layout, lighting, temperature, and décor affect comfort and interaction patterns. Designers manipulate environments to facilitate or inhibit communication.
Nonverbal Codes at a Glance| Code | What it covers | Example |
|---|
| Kinesics | Gestures, posture, facial expression | An emblem such as a thumbs-up |
| Oculesics | Eye behavior | Scanning the whole room while speaking |
| Paralanguage (vocalics) | Pitch, rate, volume, quality, pauses, fillers | Slowing down to stress a key point |
| Proxemics | Use of space and distance (Hall's four zones) | Standing at social distance in a job interview |
| Haptics | Touch | A handshake after a debate round |
| Chronemics | Use of time (monochronic or polychronic) | Arriving early for an audition |
| Artifacts and appearance | Clothing, objects, grooming | Wearing formal dress for competition |
Expectancy Violations Theory
Judee Burgoon's theory holds that people expect certain nonverbal behavior, such as a comfortable conversational distance. When someone violates the expectation, listeners become alert and judge the violation; whether it is seen as positive or negative depends largely on how they regard the person (the communicator's reward valence).
