Movement Knowledge and Skills · 8 min read
Motor Development
Competency 001 expects you to describe how movement ability changes from infancy through adolescence and to explain the social, emotional, cognitive, physical, and environmental factors that shape motor development, learning, and performance. Exam questions typically place a child of a stated age or grade in a gym and ask what the child is ready to do or what the teacher should provide next.
Principles and Directions of Development
Motor development is the continuous, age-related change in movement behavior that results from the interaction of the individual, the task, and the environment. It is sequential, meaning skills appear in a predictable order, but the rate varies from child to child. Individual differences in timing are normal and expected, so age ranges in this chapter are approximations, not deadlines.
| Principle | Meaning | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Cephalocaudal | Control develops from head toward feet | Infants control the head and neck before the trunk, then the legs |
| Proximodistal | Control develops from the body's center outward | Shoulder and arm control precedes wrist and finger control |
| Gross to fine | Large-muscle movements precede small-muscle precision | A child hugs a ball with both arms before gripping it with the fingers |
| General to specific | Mass, undifferentiated movement becomes isolated, precise movement | A young child swings the whole body to throw; an older child isolates the arm and trunk |
| Bilateral to unilateral | Both sides work together before one side leads | A child catches with two hands before one-handed catching and dominant-hand throwing |
Growth is an increase in body size, maturation is the qualitative progress toward a mature functional state governed largely by heredity, and readiness is the point at which a child has the maturation, experience, and motivation needed to learn a skill. A teacher who asks a kindergartner to perform a mature overhand throw before the nervous system and strength are ready produces frustration, not learning.
Phases of Motor Development
| Phase and approximate age | Characteristics | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| Reflexive (birth–1 year) | Involuntary, subcortically controlled movements for protection and survival; reflexes must be integrated for voluntary movement to emerge | Moro (startle), palmar grasp, rooting, asymmetric tonic neck; righting reflexes and parachute reactions |
| Rudimentary (birth–2 years) | First voluntary movements; foundation for fundamental skills | Stability: head control, sitting, standing. Locomotor: crawling, creeping, walking. Manipulative: reaching, grasping, releasing |
| Fundamental (2–7 years) | Basic patterns that are the building blocks of specialized skills | Locomotor: run, jump, hop, gallop, skip, slide, leap. Nonlocomotor: bend, stretch, twist, turn, swing, balance. Manipulative: throw, catch, kick, strike, dribble, roll |
| Specialized (7 years–adulthood) | Fundamental skills are refined, combined, and applied | Transitional (7–10): sequences such as dribble-and-shoot. Application (11–13): skill refinement for specific activities. Lifelong utilization (14+): lifelong participation |
The fundamental phase is the central concern of elementary physical education because mature patterns are not acquired automatically with age. Children who lack instruction, equipment, space, and practice time often remain at the elementary stage into adolescence, which limits later sport and recreation choices.
Stages Within a Fundamental Skill
Each fundamental skill moves through three stages. The initial stage shows limited, exaggerated, or poorly sequenced movement and inconsistent results. The elementary stage shows better coordination and control but lacks fluidity and efficiency. The mature stage is mechanically efficient, coordinated, and consistent. Stage placement is skill-specific: a child can be mature in running and initial in striking.
| Stage | Overhand throw | Catch |
|---|---|---|
| Initial | Elbow stays in front of the body; the motion is mostly forearm extension; feet stay planted; little trunk rotation | Arms held stiff and straight, hands open and reaching; face turns away; the ball is trapped against the chest |
| Elementary | Arm swings back; the trunk rotates as a block; the child steps forward on the same-side foot | Arms ready in front, bending to absorb force; hands used but thumbs may be misplaced; some tracking |
| Mature | Opposite-foot step, sequenced hip-then-trunk-then-arm rotation, and full follow-through across the body | Eyes track the ball; feet move to the ball; hands alone catch it; arms give on contact |
Growth, Maturation, and Adolescence
Growth is rapid in infancy, slower and steady in middle childhood, and rapid again at puberty. During the adolescent growth spurt, long bones grow faster than muscle and the nervous system recalibrates body proportions, so students often experience a temporary decline in coordination, balance, and accuracy sometimes called adolescent awkwardness. Girls typically begin the spurt about two years earlier than boys, and early and late maturers in the same class can differ widely in size and strength.
Constraints and Factors That Influence Development
Newell's constraints model explains movement as an outcome of three interacting sets of limits. Teachers manipulate task and environment constraints to promote learning for every individual.
| Constraint | Includes | Teacher adjustment example |
|---|---|---|
| Individual | Body size, strength, heredity, motivation, prior experience, perceived competence | Provide a choice of ball sizes so each student can succeed |
| Task | Goal, rules, equipment size and weight, number of players, scoring | Lower the net or reduce players to 3v3 to increase touches |
| Environment | Space, surface, weather, lighting, culture, peers, family, instruction | Mark smaller playing areas for beginners; set a supportive tone |
| Factor | Influence | Implication for the teacher |
|---|---|---|
| Heredity | Sets the boundaries of potential; environment determines where within them an individual performs | Set individual goals; do not label students by ability |
| Nutrition | Affects growth, energy, attention, and recovery | Connect to the TEKS nutrition and hydration standards |
| Opportunity to practice | The strongest modifiable factor for skill development | Maximize equipment so every student has frequent turns |
| Instruction | Quality, specificity, and timing of teaching | Use clear cues and developmentally appropriate tasks |
| Encouragement | Adult and peer support raises effort and persistence | Praise effort and specific improvement |
| Socioeconomic and cultural factors | Access to programs, equipment, safe space; expectations about who plays which activities | Provide equal access to equipment and activities for all students |
| Body size and composition | Affects balance, speed, and performance in size-dependent skills | Offer task modifications rather than size-based assumptions |
| Perceived competence | Students who feel capable choose to practice more | Structure success, offer choices, and avoid public comparison |
Social, emotional, and cognitive factors work through the same channels. Children with higher perceived competence practice more and therefore improve more, while those who expect to fail avoid practice and fall further behind. Cognitive development determines how well a student can process multi-step directions, strategy, and verbal feedback.
Characteristics and Implications by Level
| Level | Characteristics | Implications |
|---|---|---|
| Early childhood and PK–2 | Short attention span; egocentric; learning fundamental patterns; limited eye-hand tracking; high energy; need for imaginative play | Exploration and movement concepts; many equipment pieces; short, varied tasks; minimal competition; simple cues |
| Grades 3–5 | Improved coordination and tracking; growing interest in peers and rules; fundamental skills nearing maturity; wide skill range | Combine skills in lead-up games; cooperative and small-sided play; begin fitness testing; individual and team challenges |
| Middle school | Growth spurt; self-consciousness; need for peer acceptance; rising ability for strategy | Offer choice; low-stakes skill practice; teach strategy; protect students from embarrassment; modify for size differences |
| High school | Near-adult size; greater strength; abstract reasoning; preference for activities they choose | Skill-based and lifetime activities; student choice; personal fitness planning; independent practice and goal setting |
- The four phases are reflexive, rudimentary, fundamental, and specialized; the fundamental phase (about ages 2–7) is the focus of elementary PE.
- Development is cephalocaudal, proximodistal, gross to fine, general to specific, and bilateral to unilateral.
- Skill stages are initial, elementary, and mature; a child can be at different stages for different skills.
- Newell's constraints: individual, task, and environment; teachers most easily change task and environment.
- The adolescent growth spurt can temporarily reduce coordination; respond with reassurance and modifications.
- Opportunity to practice, instruction, and encouragement are the main modifiable factors.
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