Reading Comprehension and Analysis (Subtest 091) · 18 min read
Meaning of Words and Phrases
Because the question order mirrors the objectives, you can predict what each set will ask before you read a word. That predictability is the backbone of an efficient passage strategy:
Skim the five question stems first (not the choices). Note any paragraph numbers, quoted words or graphics they mention.
Read the passage once at a steady pace. At the end of each paragraph, say its point to yourself in five to eight words. These paragraph labels become your outline for the summary and outline questions.
Answer the questions in order. For each one, go back to the exact lines the question points to and form your own answer before you look at the choices.
Eliminate choices that are false, unstated, too broad, too narrow or off topic. Pick the choice the passage supports best, not the one that sounds most impressive.
Keep moving. With 40 questions and generous time limits, you can afford about two to two and a half minutes per question, but no single question deserves five minutes. Mark a hard item, choose your best guess and return to it later.
This section follows the five objectives in order. Chapter 1.1 covers word meaning, Chapter 1.2 covers main ideas, details and purpose, Chapter 1.3 covers relationships among ideas, Chapter 1.4 covers critical reasoning and Chapter 1.5 covers summaries, outlines and graphic information. Each chapter teaches the skill with original short passages and shows, step by step, how to reason through the kinds of questions you will see.
This chapter covers Reading Objective 0001: determining the meaning of words and phrases as they are used in a passage. You will learn how to use context clues, how to choose the right sense of a word with several meanings, how to read figurative language and connotation, how to recognize synonyms and antonyms in context and how to use word parts. On the test, this objective usually appears as the first question in each passage set, in a form such as "As used in paragraph 2, the word 'sanguine' most nearly means" or "Which of the following words or phrases, if substituted for 'curtailed' in paragraph 4, would introduce the least change in the meaning of the sentence?"
Why Context Matters More Than Memory
A vocabulary question on the VCLA is not a dictionary quiz. The tested word is often one you know, but it is used in a less common sense, or it is a word you have never seen that the surrounding sentences explain. Either way, the passage holds the answer. The test writers deliberately include distractors that are real meanings of the word, just not the meaning the writer intended. A reader who answers from memory picks one of those distractors; a reader who answers from context does not.
Consider the word "sound." In "The bridge was declared structurally sound," it means solid or stable. In "She gave sound advice," it means sensible or reliable. In "The ferry crossed the sound," it means a narrow body of water. In "The divers will sound the depth of the channel," it means to measure. A question about any one of these sentences might offer all four meanings as choices. Only the sentence tells you which is correct.
Exam Tip: Treat every vocabulary question as a fill-in-the-blank. Cover the tested word with your finger, read the sentence and the one before and after it, and predict a simple word that would fit. Then find the choice closest to your prediction.
Types of Context Clues
Writers leave several kinds of clues that point to a word's meaning. Learning to name them helps you find them quickly.
Common Types of Context Clues
| Clue Type | How It Works | Signal Words |
|---|---|---|
| Definition | The writer states the meaning directly | is, means, refers to, is defined as, that is, called |
| Restatement or appositive | The meaning is renamed, often set off by commas or dashes | or, in other words, that is, commas, dashes, parentheses |
| Example | Examples illustrate the word | such as, for example, including, like |
| Synonym | A word with similar meaning appears nearby | also, likewise, similarly, and |
| Antonym or contrast | An opposite idea reveals the meaning | but, however, unlike, although, whereas, instead |
| Cause and effect or logic | The situation makes only one meaning sensible | because, since, so, therefore, as a result |
A Step Method for "As Used in Paragraph 2" Questions
The phrase "as used in" is a warning that the word has more than one possible meaning. Use the following steps every time.
Locate the word in the passage and read the whole sentence, plus the sentence before and after it.
Cover the word and predict a plain replacement in your own words.
Check the tone of the sentence: is the meaning positive, negative or neutral?
Compare each choice with your prediction. Substitute each choice into the sentence and read it aloud in your head.
Select the choice that keeps the sentence's meaning closest to the original.
Worked Example: Paragraph 2 of a passage about urban gardening reads: "The first community plots were modest affairs, a few raised beds squeezed between parking lots. Yet the project's founders were sanguine about its future; they predicted that within a decade every neighborhood would have its own garden."
As used in paragraph 2, the word "sanguine" most nearly means:
A. optimistic
B. bloody
C. uncertain
D. secretive
Cover the word and predict: the founders "predicted that within a decade every neighborhood would have its own garden," so they felt hopeful.
"Bloody" is a real older meaning of "sanguine" (from a Latin root for blood), but it makes no sense here.
"Uncertain" contradicts the confident prediction, and "secretive" has no support in the sentence.
"Optimistic" matches the prediction and the hopeful tone.
Result: The best choice is "optimistic," because the founders confidently predicted growth.
Multiple-Meaning Words
Many of the most frequently tested words are ordinary words with several meanings. The test favors these because a reader who skims will pick the most familiar meaning. The following table shows how much a common word can change from sentence to sentence.
Common Multiple-Meaning Words in Context
| Word | Sentence | Meaning in That Sentence |
|---|---|---|
| check | The new law will check the growth of illegal dumping. | restrain, limit |
| check | She will check the figures before the meeting. | verify |
| novel | The engineers proposed a novel solution. | new, original |
| novel | He finished the novel in one sitting. | long work of fiction |
| qualify | Scientists qualify their claims when data are limited. | limit, add conditions to |
| qualify | Her experience will qualify her for the job. | make eligible |
| table | The board voted to table the motion. | postpone discussion of |
| bear | The results do not bear out the theory. | confirm (bear out) |
| arrest | Medication can arrest the spread of the infection. | stop |
| appreciate | Property values appreciate in a growing city. | increase in value |
| fine | Sift the flour until it is very fine. | made of small particles |
| command | The author has a strong command of the subject. | mastery |
Exam Tip: When a familiar word is tested, be suspicious of its most common meaning. The test rarely asks about "novel" meaning a book; it asks about "novel" meaning new. Ask yourself, "Why would the test writers ask about this easy word?" The answer is usually that it is used in an unusual sense.
Worked Example: Paragraph 4 of a passage on public libraries reads: "Critics argue that libraries are obsolete in the digital age. The data do not bear this out. Visits to branch libraries have held steady, and demand for internet access, job-search help and children's programs has grown."
Which of the following words, if substituted for "bear this out" in paragraph 4, would introduce the least change in meaning?
A. tolerate this
B. confirm this
C. carry this
D. produce this
"Tolerate" and "carry" are meanings of "bear" alone, not of the phrase "bear out."
"Produce" (as in "bear fruit") does not fit a claim.
"Confirm" fits: the data do not confirm the claim.
Result: "Confirm this" introduces the least change, because "bear out" means to support or confirm.
Figurative Language
Figurative language uses words in a non-literal way to create an image, an emphasis or a comparison. Informational and argumentative passages use it more than many readers expect, especially in openings and in persuasive paragraphs. A question may ask what a figurative phrase means or what it suggests about the writer's view.
Common Types of Figurative Language
| Device | Definition | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Simile | Comparison using like or as | The old textile mill sat like a sleeping giant at the river's edge. |
| Metaphor | Direct comparison without like or as | Standardized forms are the bottleneck of the permit process. |
| Personification | Human qualities given to nonhuman things | The city finally woke up to its housing problem. |
| Hyperbole | Deliberate exaggeration | The instruction manual is a thousand pages of confusion. |
| Understatement | Deliberately making something seem smaller | Losing the entire harvest was a bit of a setback. |
| Idiom | Fixed expression whose meaning differs from its words | The proposal was dead in the water. |
| Irony | Gap between what is said and what is meant or expected | The fire station burned down. |
| Allusion | Reference to a well-known person, story or event | The new mall became the town's Trojan horse. |
To interpret a figurative expression, translate it into a literal statement. Ask: What two things are being compared? What quality do they share? What attitude does the comparison suggest?
"Standardized forms are the bottleneck of the permit process." A bottleneck is the narrow neck of a bottle that slows the flow of liquid. The quality shared is narrowness that slows movement, so the sentence means the forms slow down the whole process. The attitude is critical.
"The new mall became the town's Trojan horse." In the ancient story, the Trojan horse looked like a gift but hid enemy soldiers. The allusion suggests that the mall looked like a benefit but brought hidden harm, perhaps by drawing customers away from downtown shops.
Worked Example: Paragraph 1 of a passage on water policy reads: "For decades, the aquifer beneath the valley was treated as a bottomless well. Farmers drilled deeper each dry season, and few officials asked how long the water would last."
In paragraph 1, the phrase "treated as a bottomless well" suggests that people:
A. carefully measured how much water remained underground
B. assumed the water supply would never run out
C. believed the aquifer was too deep to reach
D. were unaware that an aquifer existed
The next sentence supports this: farmers kept drilling, and few asked "how long the water would last."
"Carefully measured" contradicts "few officials asked." "Too deep to reach" contradicts the farmers' drilling. "Unaware that an aquifer existed" is not supported; they were drilling into it.
Result: The phrase suggests that people assumed the supply would never run out.
Common Trap: Choosing the literal meaning of an idiom or metaphor. If a passage says a proposal was "dead in the water," a choice about a sinking boat is a distractor. The test always wants the figurative meaning in context.
Connotation and Denotation
Denotation is a word's literal dictionary meaning. Connotation is the emotional association or shade of meaning the word carries. Words with the same denotation can have very different connotations, and writers choose among them to shape the reader's attitude.
Same Denotation, Different Connotations
| Neutral | Positive | Negative |
|---|---|---|
| inexpensive | economical, affordable | cheap, shoddy |
| persistent | determined, tenacious | stubborn, obstinate |
| talkative | articulate, outgoing | chatty, long-winded |
| unusual | distinctive, original | odd, bizarre |
| careful with money | thrifty, prudent | stingy, miserly |
| crowd | gathering, audience | mob, horde |
| old | historic, seasoned | outdated, decrepit |
| confident | self-assured | arrogant, cocky |
Connotation matters on the test in two ways. First, a vocabulary question may offer two choices with the same basic meaning but different connotations; the right one matches the tone of the passage. Second, connotation is evidence of a writer's attitude, which links this objective to critical reasoning (Chapter 1.4). If a writer calls a group of protesters "a mob," the word choice reveals a negative view; if the writer calls them "a gathering of concerned residents," the view is sympathetic.
Worked Example: A passage praising a city's new transit plan says in paragraph 3: "The plan's designers were frugal with public funds, choosing refurbished rail cars over expensive new ones."
As used in paragraph 3, "frugal" most nearly means:
A. stingy
B. careless
C. economical
D. wasteful
The passage praises the plan, so the word has a positive or neutral connotation.
"Careless" and "wasteful" are opposites of the meaning; choosing refurbished cars over expensive new ones shows saving money.
"Stingy" shares the denotation of spending little, but its connotation is negative and clashes with the praising tone.
"Economical" has the same denotation and the approving connotation.
Result: "Economical" is the best choice because it keeps both the meaning and the positive tone.
Synonyms and Antonyms in Context
Many vocabulary questions are really synonym questions: "Which word could replace X with the least change in meaning?" Others test antonyms indirectly by placing a word in contrast with its opposite. Recognizing synonym and antonym relationships inside a passage also helps you define unknown words.
Writers often avoid repeating a word by using a synonym in the next sentence. "The mayor's reply was terse. Her two-sentence statement offered no details." "Two-sentence statement" restates "terse" as brief. Watch for this pattern; the restatement is often the clue the question depends on.
Contrast structures place antonyms side by side. "Some economists predict a sharp downturn; others expect the market to remain buoyant." The contrast with "sharp downturn" shows that "buoyant" means strong or rising.
Which of the following words, if substituted for "eclipsed" in paragraph 5, would introduce the least change in meaning?
A. darkened
B. surpassed
C. followed
D. concealed
Predict: the gift was larger than all other income combined, so it "outdid" or "exceeded" the other sources.
"Followed" reverses the relationship.
"Surpassed" fits the sense of being greater than.
Result: "Surpassed" introduces the least change, since the gift exceeded every other source.
Word Parts: Roots, Prefixes and Suffixes
When context clues are thin, word parts can narrow the choices. Many academic words are built from Latin and Greek roots. Knowing a few dozen common parts lets you make a reasonable guess about unfamiliar words, and the context then confirms or corrects the guess.
Common Prefixes
| Prefix | Meaning | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| ante-, pre- | before | antecedent, precede |
| post- | after | postpone, postwar |
| anti-, contra- | against | antidote, contradict |
| bene- | good, well | benefit, benevolent |
| mal- | bad, badly | malfunction, malpractice |
| circum- | around | circumvent, circumference |
| inter- | between | interstate, intervene |
| intra- | within | intramural, intravenous |
| sub- | under, below | submerge, subordinate |
| super-, sur- | over, above | supervise, surplus |
| trans- | across | transport, transmit |
| in-, im-, il-, ir-, un-, non- | not | inaccurate, illegible, irregular |
| mis- | wrongly | misinterpret, mislead |
| re- | again, back | revise, retract |
| co-, com-, con- | together, with | cooperate, converge |
| omni- | all | omnivore, omnipresent |
Common Roots
| Root | Meaning | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| bio | life | biology, biography |
| chron | time | chronic, chronology |
| cred | believe | credible, incredulous |
| dict | say, speak | predict, contradict |
| duc, duct | lead | conduct, induce |
| graph, gram | write | autograph, telegram |
| ject | throw | reject, projectile |
| log, logy | word, study | dialogue, ecology |
| mit, miss | send | transmit, dismiss |
| path | feeling, disease | sympathy, pathology |
| port | carry | export, portable |
| scrib, script | write | describe, manuscript |
| spec, spect | look | inspect, spectator |
| tract | pull, draw | attract, retract |
| ver | true | verify, veracity |
| vid, vis | see | evidence, visible |
| voc, vok | call, voice | vocal, revoke |
Common Suffixes
| Suffix | Meaning or Function | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| -able, -ible | capable of | readable, flexible |
| -less | without | fearless, relentless |
| -ous, -ose | full of | courageous, verbose |
| -ist, -er, -or | one who | biologist, editor |
| -ize, -ify | to make or cause | modernize, clarify |
| -tion, -sion, -ment | act or state of | revision, agreement |
| -ity, -ness | quality or state of | clarity, kindness |
| -ology | study of | geology, sociology |
| -cide | killing | pesticide, herbicide |
Worked Example: A passage on scientific publishing says: "Some readers were incredulous when the team claimed a hundredfold improvement, and they demanded to see the raw data."
As used in the passage, "incredulous" most nearly means:
A. disbelieving
B. impressed
C. confused
D. angry
Break the word apart: "in-" (not) + "cred" (believe) + "-ulous" (inclined to). So, not inclined to believe.
Confirm with context: the readers "demanded to see the raw data," which is what doubtful people do.
"Impressed" is the opposite reaction. "Confused" and "angry" are possible feelings but are not what the word parts or the demand for data indicate.
Result: "Disbelieving" is correct; both the word parts and the context point to doubt.
Putting the Skills Together
On the real test, you will often use two or three clue types at once. Read the following mini passage and notice how the clues combine.
"Early telephone companies faced a dilemma. They could invest in costly rural lines that would serve few customers, or they could concentrate on profitable cities and leave farm families isolated. Neither choice was attractive, and for years the companies chose the second. Rural residents, tired of waiting, eventually formed their own cooperatives, stringing wire along fence posts to create homegrown networks."
The word "dilemma" is explained by restatement and logic: the next sentence lays out two options, and "Neither choice was attractive" confirms that a dilemma is a situation requiring a choice between two unsatisfactory options. The word "cooperatives" can be decoded with word parts ("co-" means together, "oper" relates to work) and confirmed by context: residents joined together to build their own networks.
Worked Example: Using the telephone passage, a question asks: As used in the passage, the word "isolated" most nearly means:
A. protected
B. cut off
C. quarantined
D. independent
Context: the companies would "leave farm families isolated" if they focused on cities and skipped rural lines, meaning the families would have no telephone connection.
"Quarantined" is a meaning related to disease, which does not fit. "Protected" adds a positive idea the passage does not support.
"Independent" fits the later cooperative idea but not the sentence where "isolated" appears.
"Cut off" captures the lack of connection.
Result: "Cut off" is the best choice, because the families would lack telephone service.
Key Takeaways
Answer every vocabulary question from the passage, not from memory; the right meaning is the one that fits the sentence.
Predict a replacement before reading the choices, then substitute each choice into the sentence.
Be suspicious of familiar words; they are usually tested in a less common sense.
Translate figurative language into a literal statement and check the attitude it conveys.
Match connotation as well as denotation; the right choice keeps the passage's tone.
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