Communication occurs at multiple levels, each with distinct characteristics:
Intrapersonal Communication
Communication within oneself, including self-talk, reflection, and internal dialogue. It forms the foundation for all other communication and includes processes like perception, self-concept development, and decision-making.
Interpersonal Communication
Communication between two people, typically in a face-to-face setting with immediate feedback. Characterized by mutual influence, relationship development, and personal connection.
Small Group Communication
Interaction among three to approximately fifteen people who share a common purpose, feel a sense of belonging, and influence one another.
Public Communication
One person communicating to a large audience, with limited direct interaction. The speaker adapts messages to diverse audience members simultaneously.
Mass Communication
Messages transmitted through media channels to large, anonymous, heterogeneous audiences. Characterized by delayed and limited feedback.
Organizational Communication
Communication within and among organizations, including internal communication, external relations, and organizational culture.
Verbal communication involves the use of words, either spoken or written, to convey messages. Language is the systematic, rule-governed use of symbols to communicate meaning.
Properties of Language
Arbitrary
The relationship between words and their referents is based on social convention, not inherent connection. The word "chair" has no natural relationship to the object it represents.
Ambiguous
Words can have multiple meanings. Context helps determine intended meaning, but misunderstanding remains possible.
Abstract
Language exists on a continuum from concrete (specific, observable) to abstract (general, conceptual). Higher abstraction increases the potential for misinterpretation.
Rule-Governed
Language operates according to:
Phonological rules (sounds)
Syntactic rules (grammar and word order)
Semantic rules (meaning)
Pragmatic rules (appropriate use in context)
Language and Meaning
Denotative Meaning
The dictionary definition of a word; its objective, literal meaning.
Connotative Meaning
The emotional associations and personal meanings attached to words; subjective and variable among individuals.
Triangle of Meaning (Ogden and Richards)
This model illustrates that there is no direct connection between a symbol (word) and its referent (thing). The connection is mediated through the reference (thought or concept) in a person's mind.
Language and Culture
Language both reflects and shapes cultural reality. The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis suggests that language influences thought and perception. The strong version (linguistic determinism) claims language determines thought; the weak version (linguistic relativity) suggests language influences but does not determine thought.
Different languages categorize reality differently, affecting how speakers perceive and think about the world. For example, languages with multiple words for snow may enable finer perceptual distinctions among snow types.
Language and Power
Language can reflect and reinforce power structures. Considerations include:
Powerful vs. Powerless Speech
Powerful speech is direct and assertive. Powerless speech includes hedges ("I think," "sort of"), tag questions ("don't you think?"), disclaimers, and excessive politeness markers.
Inclusive Language
Language that avoids marginalizing or excluding groups. This includes avoiding sexist language (using "firefighter" instead of "fireman"), heterosexist language, racist language, and ableist language.
Euphemisms and Dysphemisms
Euphemisms substitute mild terms for harsh ones ("passed away" for "died"). Dysphemisms use harsh terms for neutral concepts. Both can be used manipulatively.
